1 Questionnaire and Checklists
When you need to quickly and/or easily get lots of information from people in a non threatening way, questionnaire and checklist are useful data collection techniques. Questionnaires and checklists can complete anonymously and relatively inexpensive to administer. Since data collected is quantitative, it is easy to compare and analyse and can be administered to many people. Massive amount of data can be obtained. It is also easy to design as there are many sample questionnaires already in existence. However, the information obtained may not be accurate as it relies how truthfully subjects respond to the questions. There is also the fear that the wordings used can bias client’s responses. Questionnaires are impersonal and since only a sample of subjects are given the instrument, we not get the full story.

.2 Interviews
Interviews are usually one-on-one situations in which an individual asks questions to which a second individual (which may be a teacher, principal, student, parent) responds. The person asking the questions is called the interviewer while the person giving answers to the questions is called the interviewee. Interviews are used when you want to fully understand someone’s impressions or experiences, or learn more about their answers to questionnaires. There are two general types of interviews depending on the extent to which the responses required are unstructured or structured. In an unstructured interview, the interviewer does not follow a rigid script and there is a great deal of flexibility in the responses.

3 Observations
To gather accurate information about how a program actually operates, particularly about processes. In other words to view operations of a program as they are actually occurring. For example, can the people involved adapt to events as they occur.

4 Documents
When we want impressions of how a programme operates without interrupting the programme; we can review the memos, minutes, etc to get a comprehensive and historical information about the implementation of the programme. However, we should be quite clear about what looking for as there may be a load of documents.

The Importance of Curriculum evaluation

Curriculum evaluation may be an internal activity and process conducted by the various units within the education system for their own respective purposes. These units may include national Ministries of Education, regional education authorities, institutional supervision and reporting systems, departments of education, schools and communities.
Curriculum evaluation may also be external or commissioned review processes. These may be undertaken regularly by special committees or task forces on the curriculum, or they may be research-based studies on the state and effectiveness of various aspects of the curriculum and its implementation. These processes might examine, for example, the effectiveness of curriculum content, existing pedagogies and instructional approaches, teacher training and textbooks and instructional materials.

Downward Filtration Theory holds that knowledge would percolate from the educated classes to the masses through the independent efforts of the former. Since the allocated funds could educate only a handful of Indians, it was decided to spend them in educating a few persons from the upper and middle classes who were expected to carry forward the task of educating the masses and spreading modern ideas among them. Education and modern ideas were thus supposed to filter or radiate downwards from the upper classes. Thus according to the ‘filtration theory’ “education was to permeate down to the masses from above.

The missionaries supported down ward filtration theory and opined that if Hindus of the higher castes were converted to Christianity through education, other lower caste people would follow suit automatically. Macaulay also supported the view and advocated the establishment of a class who may be interpreters between the government and the governed. Auckland finally approved the theory in his minute in 1839 and recommended that Government attempts should be restricted to the extension of higher education to the upper strata of society who have leisure for study and whose culture would filter clown to the masses.

This theory had to be abandoned later because it did not work out for two reasons. The persons who had acquired English education were able to get government jobs easily hence they did not make any effort for educating their countrymen, moreover, the new education had “created a separate caste of English Scholars, who no longer had sympathy, or had very title sympathy, with their countrymen” (B.D. Basa, n. d. p 86).
The Downward filtration theory is the result of the companies’ government that was to justify the meager expenditure on education. The education policy of the company’s government neglected mass education and indigenous village schools which imparted elementary education, howsoever limited and rudimentary to the people. Moreover it was the decision was later changed and the government took initiative to spread education among the masses.

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The study of early Indian economic history goes back to the middle of the 19th century. Christian lanen’s monumental history of India down to the fall of vijayanagara emphasized political history. The economic sections occupied a subsidiary place. Another colonial writer Richard fick primarily dealt with social or caste relationships prevalent in north-eastern India. But many historians of the 19th and the 20th centuries wrote under the auspices of the imperial government and had pre-conceived ideas about the India’s past. The best known exponent of the imperialist view of Indian history was Vincent A. smith. He devoted himself to the study of the general history of ancient India. He made a significant observation that in the ancient times land was own by the king. British writers after smith gave special attention to Indian connection with Europe and Greek rule in India. In numismatic the study of indo-Greek coins received their chief attention. In 1916, H.G. Rawlinson wrote his ‘Intercourse between India and the western world, which covered India’s commercial contact with the Greece-roman world from the earliest times to the fall of Rome. Indo roman trade continued to attract the attention of British scholars till the fifties. From 1951, onward there was a new trend in the economic history writing and contemporary British scholars directly or indirectly provide some justification for the commercial enterprise of the European nations in India in modern times and support the British exploitation of the Indian resources. The main challenge to the historical models of writing put forward by British historians came from Indian scholars who, under the influence of growing nationalist movement, wrote in conscious opposition to the imperialist, view of Indian history. The development of nationalism and political consciousness at the term of the century made the Indian scholars keenly aware of the economic exploitation of India by the British, which formed the theme of writings of Dadabhai Naroji and R,C.Dutt. The strong nationalist movement that followed the partition of Bengal in 1905 gave a great impetus to the study of the economic condition of ancient India. A more forceful attack on the imperialist writer came from K.P.Jaswal who was considered a potential contributor of the ‘seminaries’ of sedition. At the time of nationalist movement several monographic studies were published, through several scientific themes of early economic history attracted the attention of Indian scholars in the twenties. Writer like N.C.Bandopadhya, S.K.Das M.A.Buch seeks to make a systematic study of economic development in ancient India, with special references to the land system, agriculture industry and trade. One of the earliest writings on the economic content of the arthashastra’s was by H.C.Ray. he decected in kautilya’s social and economic policies and the element of modern state socialism developed in Germany by the social legislation of Bismark of the Indian scholars of the twenties U.N.Ghoshal handled his sources most critically. His contributions to the study of the taxation system of india from the vedic age to c. A.D.1200 but it gave a detailed information detailed studies of early south Indian rconomic history was undertaken by K.M.Gupta (the land system in south india between A.D.800 and A.D.1200, Lahore,1933) and A.Appadorai (economic conditions in southern india,A.D,1000-1500,2 vols,madras,1986). In recent year detailed economic studies of the different regions of peninsular india have undertaken. K.Sundaram in his studies in economic and social conditions of medieval Andhra A.D.1000-1600 (machilipatanam and madras, 1968) gives an account of metal work, jewellery, carpentary, architecture, spinning and weaving salt manufacture etc. but analysis is absent in most of the economic writings like D.R.Das’s economic history of the deccan during the first six centuries of the Christian.

Some of the common STDs and their treatment
Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are those that are mostly spread through sexual activities. One partner transfers the disease to his or her partner as a result of sexual contact, including vaginal sex, anal sex or oral sex. While most STDs may only be transmitted through sexual intercourse, they are still common because many people do not know how to avoid or prevent them, much less treat them. Those who test positive for STD have to advise their partners to be tested too.

The most common but curable STD is chlamydia, which usually affects the urethra of the penis in men and the cervix in women. One of the reasons why this disease is prevalent is because half of those who are infected have no symptoms. Prescription antibiotics are used to treat chlamydia for a period of one to two weeks.

Gonorrhea is another common STD that is caused by bacteria. Like chlamydia, many of those who have gonorrhea are unaware that they are infected because they have no symptoms. Treatment is also through antibiotics. The problem is that new strains of the bacteria that cause this STD have become resistant to certain drugs. Moreover, gonorrhea in the throat is more difficult to treat.

In the past, the treatment of uncomplicated gonorrhea was fairly simple. A single injection of penicillin cured almost every infected person. Unfortunately, there are new strains of gonorrhea that have become resistant to various antibiotics, including penicillins, and are therefore more difficult to treat. Fortunately, gonorrhea can still be treated by other injectable or oral medications.Uncomplicated gonococcal infections of the cervix, urethra, and rectum, are usually treated by a single injection of ceftriaxone intramuscularly or by 400mg of cefixime (Suprax) in a single oral dose. For uncomplicated gonococcal infections of the pharynx, the recommended treatment is 125 mg of ceftriaxone in a single IM dose.Alternative regimens for uncomplicated gonococcal infections of the cervix, urethra, and rectum are 2 g of spectinomycin in nonpregnant women (not available in the United States) in a single IM dose or single doses of cephalosporins (ceftizoxime, 500 mg IM; or cefoxitin, 2 g IM, administered with probenecid (Benemid), 1 g orally; or cefotaxime, 500 mg IM).

Treatment should always include medication that will treat chlamydia [for example, azithromycin (Zithromax, Zmax) or doxycycline (Vibramycin, Oracea, Adoxa, Atridox and others)] as well as gonorrhea, because gonorrhea and chlamydia frequently exist together in the same person. The sexual partners of women who have had either gonorrhea or chlamydia must receive treatment for both infections since their partners may be infected as well. Treating the partners also prevents reinfection of the woman. Women suffering from PID require more aggressive treatment that is effective against the bacteria that cause gonorrhea as well as against other organisms. These women often require intravenous administration of antibiotics.It is important to note that doxycycline, one of the recommended drugs for treatment of PID, is not recommended for use in pregnant women.Gonorrhea is one of the easier STDs to prevent because the bacterium that causes the infection can survive only under certain conditions. The use of condoms protects against gonorrhea infection. Since the organism can live in the throat, condoms should be used during oral-genital contact as well.

Syphilis is another common and well-known STD that is primarily transmitted through the sores that appear on the genital area, the anus and the mouth. It should be noted that because the sores may be located in areas that are not covered by a condom, condoms will not completely eliminate the possibility of the transmission of this disease. These sores or chancres are painless and small and may heal by themselves. However, this does not mean that syphilis is no longer present. Treatment of syphilis is primarily through parenteral penicillin.

Trichomoniasis is the most prevalent STD in young women who are sexually active. The problem is that this disease is usually mistaken as bacterial vaginosis or a yeast infection because of the similarity of the symptoms. The treatment of this STD is a single dose of metronidazole. Other common STDs are pubic lice, scabies, human papillomavirus, HIV and herpes.

Vaccines are available that protect against some viral STIs, such as Hepatitis A, Hepatitis B, Herpes simplex vaccine (both Herpevac and ImmunoVex), and some types of HPV. Vaccination before initiation of sexual contact is advised to assure maximal protection.

High risk exposure such as that which occurs in rape cases may be treated prophylacticly using antibiotic combinations such as azithromycin, cefixime, and metronidazole.

An option for treating partners of patients (index cases) diagnosed with chlamydia or gonorrhea is patient-delivered partner therapy (PDT or PDPT), which is the clinical practice of treating the sex partners of index cases by providing prescriptions or medications to the patient to take to his/her partner without the health care provider first examining the partner.

Feudal society had a hierarchical structure in which individuals had their designated positions. King was at the top of this structure who bestowed fiefs or estates on a number of lords. The lords distributed fiefs to a number of vassals who had their specified duties and obligations. The knights were at the bottom of this hierarchy and performed military duties. The whole system worked on strong bonds of personal loyalty and allegiance.
The feudal system had its own specific forms and structures. The feudal ties involved a series of obligations binding on lords, vassals and peasants. Homage and the acknowledgement of obligation of fidelity to lord was the governing principle. The fief in the form of a landed estate was of varying size. It was also in the form of public authority or a duty or right. Elaborate rules governed the inheritance of fiefs where lords had their defined powers. The peasantry within a manor had a sort of stratification some enjoying rights and others completely subjugated. The cultivators were subjected to heavy land tax and various chesses. The institution of knights evolved out of the need for armed power to protect the manors and suppress dissent inside it. While going through this unit you must have noticed that the form and structure of feudalism was not uniform in the whole of Europe and there were significant variations in different regions which were pointed out during our discussion.
Forms and structure of the feudaral society.
The legal complex of acts by which one free man placed himself in the protection of another was known as commendation. The primary rite of commendation was known as homage, which all classes performed during the Merovingian period but came to be limited under the Carolingian kings to the members of the aristocratic class. Reflecting the improvement of the status of vassalage in the middle of the eight century, the Carolingians added to the ceremony an oath of fealty (vassal’s acknowledgement of fidelity to his lord) to emphasize the fact that the vassals, now comprising the members of aristocracy, served as free men. In principle at least the contract of vassalage was regarded as one freely concluded between the two parties. The doing of homage and the taking an oath of fealty were fairly frequently accompanied, especially in France, by a ceremonial kiss (osculum,0, which was not only a spectacular way of confirming the obligations contracted by the two parties, but also lent dignity to the status of the vassal.
The lord or the chief of a group of vassals could both keep the vassal in his own house and feed, cloth and equip him at his own expense, or he could endow him with an estate or regular incomes derived from land and leave him to provide for his own maintenance. When a lord died without a certain heir, his vassals were regarded as the vassals of his lord until an heir to the decreased was legally established. In other words, the rights of a lord in the fiefs of his vassals necessarily reverted on his death without heirs to the lord of whom he ultimately held those fiefs. A fief normally consisted of a landed estate, which could very greatly in size. But a fief might also be some form of public authority, or a duty or right, including the right to tolls and market dues, the rights of minting and justice, the functions of advocate, mayor, provost, receiver, and so on. These fiefs which had no territorial basis consist or in the right. To certain payment made at regular intervals were known as ‘money fiefs’ Inheritance of fiefs:- as long as the inheritance of fiefs had not become an established custom, the lord could demand some recompense from the aspiring candidate before admitting him as a vassal. To fealty and homage and investing him with the fief. The payment which the lord exacted on, this account was commonly known as relief, which could vary depending upon the importance of the particular fief in question-from a horse and the equipment of a knight to one year’s revenue of the fief.
Allods:-while feudal tenure – the villain tenements and the fiefs – was certainly the most common mode of holding land, it was not the only form of real property rights. There was the ‘allods’which remained independent to a significant degree owing to the porous and limited nature of the feudal network of dependent ties. The allodial right was one of complete ownership, not subject to any conditions of service or payment.
Manors:- The fundamental unit of economic production as well as social life in the feudal order was the manor. A manor was first and foremost an agglomeration of small dependent farms directly subjected to the authority of a lord and farmed by serfs or peasant cultivators bound to the soul. In a characteristic manor the village was composed of peasant households clustered together in crude homes around the nucleus of a church, grist and stone mill, blacksmith shop, winepress, bakery and other facilities. Though the manorial village was not entirely self-sufficient since certain essential commodities like salt or metal – were had to be obtained from outside sources, most of the daily needs of the peasants could be met with the goods produced within the manor. The majority of the manorial population was a vast body of servile peasantry of diverse origins, although over the course of the centuries the traces of the distinction mostly disappeared for all practical purposes.
Knights, tournaments and chivalry:-a knight was essentially a mounted warrior in the service of his liege – lord using the speed and momentum of a charge, the horse could trample his rider’s enemies and the rider could use the long lance to injure his foes while he remained out of reach of their weapons. The true knight also disdained all tricks in battle and was not supposed to strike an unarmed or unprepared enemy. Although it was held that a knight ought to help all ladies to the utmost of his power, especially if they had been deprived of their rights, or was in distress of any kind, he was expected to choose one as the special object of his attraction. To win her grace, or to enhance her reputation, he sought adventures, and fought for her both in war and tournaments. However, chivalry might be understood more as a normative guide of knight’s behavior than as a true reflection of what the knights actually did.

The military technology of medieval India was marked by remarkable progress. Conventional weapons like Bow-arrow, sword etc were accompanied by different kind of firearms for the first time. The industrial technology during the sixteenth and the seventeenth century saw remarkable achievements in the form of artillery. The manufacture of cannon was then the real heavy industry, on the handgun were lavished all the fruits of the increasing mechanical sophistication attained during the period. Modern artillery was mainly brought to India, on the one hand by Babur, who had received it from Persia and on the other by the Portuguese early in the sixteenth century. Evidence has however, now been adduced of the presence of cannon during the later half of the fifteenth century. The specimens of handguns from the mughal period are hand enough in case of studying different methods of manufacture of firearms in India. In case of a handgun the most significant portion is the propelling mechanism. In the earliest guns the change was fired by applying a ‘match’ or burning rope or cord to the priming pan which communicated through the touch hole with barrel into which gun powder had been previously rammed. During the 15th century and the 16th century the match lock developed in Europe by first providing for a pivoted lever. With the help of this lever the match could be hold and a spring controlled the lever and then converting it into an arm. But Indian evidences are little in this context and the development of the match lock in India cannot be traced back. In Abul Fazl’s writing there are references to match locks being manufactured by Akbar’s arsenal but that it was also turning out a lock in which the match was done away with. The practical knowledge of the world emperor helped in evolving a gun which can be fired without the use of the match but with just a slight movement of the masha. At the same time the pellet is also discharged. Such a gun could either have a decider of the seventeenth century saw the appearance of the flint lock in Europe, where it gradually, but not completely supplanted the match lock during the later half of the century. Its first appearance in India is difficult to date, but in 1623 it excited the great curiosity of the zamorin of Calicut, for their guns have only matches. The subsequent development of the flint lock in India again is not easy to trace. It would appear that Indian guns began to be equipped with flint lock during the later half of the seventeenth century. But the basis for this view is assumption and there is very little evidence to substantiate it. Bernier says that Indian sometimes imitated perfectly articles of European manufacture. He also says that “among other things, the Indians make excellent muskets, and fowling pieces. The barrel of the gun is a great problem for the blacksmith as it had to with stand the explosion inside it. Great accuracy was needed with regard to its bore and alignment.
In the manufacture of cannon, two trends were noticeable in the mughal period. The first was to make very large pieces. This was possible as long as they were cast of bronze. The method of casting such cannon pieces was apparently similar to the one employed by the ottoman Turks during the middle of the fifteenth century, A method which lasted in Europe until about 1750.Babur’s gun founders cast cannon by precisely the same means. Whether the process of bronze casting was further improvised in India or the alloy used was better, it would appear that by the end of the sixteenth century, the heaviest guns in the world were being cast in India. The climax being reached with the famous Malik Maidan cast in bronze at diameter at the muzzle, 5’5” and of the bore, 2’4 and half Inc which threw stone balls of 10 maunds.

Competition, strife, conflict, and struggle are inherent among “Classes in Society”. Marx propounded that inherent in the structure of classes was the identification of a common ‘class enemy’ as an entity against which all the members of a class would unite. If there was no class enemy, the people of a class would compete with each other fiercely and there would be no class solidarity or class cohesion. Marx maintained that when a large-scale industry is set up, scores of people come together in the search of avenues for subsistence. Naturally, they compete with each other on several counts. But, their common wages, common interest against their superiors and other similar conditions keep them united and curtail competition among themselves. The capitalists on the other hand unite in the idea of repression. In the event of united capital, the working class forms associations. The interests that they define are class interests but the struggle of a class against another class is a political struggle. It may be appreciated that the conflict between classes is restricted to the race for economic rewards and resources. It also develops because of psychological suffering that accompanies alienation of labor.

Weber, on the other hand believed that relative control over goods and services (that constitute the groundwork for the conception of class), produces income, opens up the possibility of procuring other goods, provides social position, and provisions a certain style of life. Those in common class situation are often led to similar sentiments and ideas but not necessarily to concerted action (Bendix, 1974). Class organization emerges when there is an economic opponent. Weber (1968) proposed that it becomes important to curtail the competition when the number of competitors increases with respect to the profit span. For doing this, one group of competitors adopts some characteristics of its actual or potential group of competitors. The characteristics are externally identifiable such as language, religion, descent, residence and others. Sometimes associations are formed with rational regulations.

Till recently, many scholars were of the opinion

that India did not contribute anything to the evolution of political thought. It was believed that political thought in ancient India, if there was any, was at best a part of Hindu philosophy or Hindu religion. In other words, it was thought that the Hindu science of polity did not have a separate identity. But if we look at the notion of political in various available sources, it is clear that ancient Indian thinkers did have a notion of political distinct from either philosophy or religion. This erroneous conclusion that some scholars came to was because of the fact that they have fixed notions of politics and political science derived mainly from the West. If we can define ‘politics’ as the “affairs of a territorially organised community held together by allegiance to a common authority”, one can hardly agree with those who believed that there was no systematic development of political thought in ancient India.

Problem of Nomenclature: The confusion arises because of the large number of parallel terms used in ancient India for politics. There were several names, they were: Rajadharma, which means duties of the ruler, Kshatravidya, the knowledge that the ruler should have, Rajyasastra meaning staecraft or the science of state, Dandaniti, the ethics of awarding punishment, Nitisastra, science of ethics regulating the lives of both the ruler and the ruled and Arthashastra, the art of acquisition and maintenance of land.

Concept of Matsyanyaya: In ancient India, we have a term equivalent to the western concept of the state of nature. It is called Matsyanyaya, the state of big fish devouring the small. In ancient Indian political thought, we come across the term Matsyanyaya which explains the state of affairs in the absence of force or danda. Force is held to be the ultimate sanction behind the state. At the same time, it is emphasised that force cannot be used arbitrarily and various checks have been introduced to see that the person who is entrusted with authority to rule cannot use force at his will.

Dharma and Danda: For Bhikhu Parekh, Hindu political thinkers conceptualized political life in terms of two central concepts namely, dharma and danda. Both are dependent on each other. The term danda means discipline, force, restraint, constraint or punishment.

Dharma is that which holds society together. It is derived from the Sanskrit root ‘dhr’ meaning to hold. Society could be held together when each individual and groups does his or its specific duties.

In sociology, industrial society refers to a society driven by the use of technology to enable mass production, supporting a large population with a high capacity for division of labour. Such a structure developed in the west in the period of time following the Industrial Revolution, and replaced the agrarian societies of the Pre-modern, Pre-industrial age. Industrial societies are generally mass societies, and may be succeeded by an Information society. They are often contrasted to with the traditional societies. Industrial society is characterized by the use of external energy sources, such as fossil fuels, to increase the rate and scale of production. The production of food is shifted to large commercial farms where the products of industry, such as combine harvesters and fossil fuel based fertilizers, are used to decrease required human labor while increasing production. No longer needed for the production of food, excess labor is moved into these factories where mechanization is utilized to further increase efficiency. As populations grow, and mechanization is further refined, often to the level of automation, many workers shift to expanding service industries.

Industrial society makes urbanization desirable, in part so that workers can be closer to centers of production, and the service industry can provide labor to workers and those that benefit financially from them, in exchange for a piece of production profits with which they can buy goods. This leads to the rise of very large cities and surrounding suburban areas with a high rate of economic activity.

These urban centers require the input of external energy sources in order to overcome the diminishing returns of agricultural consolidation, due partially to the lack of nearby arable land, associated transportation and storage costs, and are otherwise unsustainable. This makes the reliable availability of the needed energy resources high priority in industrial government policies.

Some theoreticians—namely Ulrich Beck, Anthony Giddens and Manuel Castells — argue that we are located in the middle of a transformation or transition from industrial societies to post-modern societies. The triggering technology for the change from an agricultural to an industrial organization was steam power, allowing mass production and reducing the agricultural work necessary. Thus many industrial cities are built around rivers. Identified as catalyst or trigger for the transition to post-modern or informational society is global information technology.

If a nation becomes “post-industrial” it passes through, or dodges, a phase of society predominated by a manufacturing-based economy and moves on to a structure of society based on the provision of information, innovation, finance, and services. A virtual cult of ‘creatives’ have sprung up embodying and often describing and defending the post-industrial ethos. They argue that businesses that create intangibles have taken a more prominent role in the wake of manufacturing’s decline and that in some countries, the production of creative intangibles produces more exports than manufacturing alone. Actor and artistic director of the Old Vic Theatre, Kevin Spacey, has argued the economic case for the arts in terms of providing jobs and being of greater importance in exports than manufacturing (as well as an educational role) in a guest column he wrote for The Times. As the term has been used, a few common themes (not limited to those below) have begun to emerge. The economy undergoes a transition from the production of goods to the provision of services. Knowledge becomes a valued form of capital (e.g., the knowledge produced through the Human Genome Project).

Producing ideas is the main way to grow the economy. Through processes of globalization and automation, the value and importance to the economy of blue-collar, unionized work, including manual labor (e.g., assembly-line work) decline, and those of professional workers (e.g. scientists, creative-industry professionals, and IT professionals) grow in value and prevalence. Behavioral and information sciences and technologies are developed and implemented. (e.g. behavioral economics, information architecture, cybernetics, Game theory and Information theory.

The civilization of Mesopotamia developed around Euphrates and Tigris rivers. Euphrates is the lifeline of the ancient civilization. The flood plain of Euphrates was cultivated to have been a prosperous peasantry. The southern plains are also called ‘Sumer’. It was the land of the Sumerian. Sumer is a semi-arid desert, which was sparsely vegetated. In the lower and lowest reaches of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, the land is marshy, and both connect the small villages to one another. The main occupations were fishing and hunting. In the tall reed growths, birds and wild pigs were hunted. In Sumer the rainfall is not enough for good production of staple crops like wheat and barely. Flax was the vegetable fiber, besides there were peas, vetch, beans, onions, cucumber etc. between November and April with a simple technology the water of the Euphrates was diverted into canals or ditches and then into individual fields. Irrigation and the use of the seeder plough contributed to tremendously high outputs. Pastoralism was complementary to agriculture. Often members of the same community could be either pastoralists or cultivators because some families specialized in pastoralism, the animal wealth of ancient Mesopotamia was enormous and wool, the chief fabric was exported. Mesopotamia’s wool for carts, boats, and roof beams came mostly from the zagros and the Lebanon. Metals were also exported. The plains of the lower Tigris and the Euphrates were occupied soon after about 5000 BC, in the ubaid period. There were small fishing settlements in the beginning, but agricultural life was established soon thereafter. Material culture was limited. In the following uruk period the population rose, many more villages came into existence. There is evidence for the plough and the wheel, and towards the end of the period written records are attested, the late uruk period, best represented at the extensive site of the uruke, also saw the invention of the cylinder seal, and experiments with the construction of large monumental temples. The range of materials in use also increased considerably. Yet, what is significant is that, as in Egypt, many developments took place in a short span of time. During the short Jamdat Nasr period the writing system and seal carving underwent important development.

The religion of Islam was founded by Prophet Muhammad. He established the Islamic state in the desert land of medina. Initially Islam was by and large the answer to the problems which were faced by a tribal society. It was undergoing a transitory period. But in course of time Islam spread out over a vast area. Areas which had highly developed cultural and political traditions of their own deliberately adopted the thoughts and principles of Islam. The principle of Islam was a new principle of solidarity and unity. Prophet Muhammad mission was to bind or unify the divided section of the Arab society in accordance with the unifying principle of Islam. His mission, first unconscious and then deliberate was followed by his personal realization of Almighty’s presence. Before him man’s only response could be of worship and gratitude. Muhammad was personally aware of god’s mercy and benevolence when he was alone and meditating. He realizes that one had to submit himself totally to lord. He would judge him one day. This concept of personal obligation and responsibility to god was alien to the wealthy merchants and different tribes who were glorified with their own narrow-minded obligations. Muhammad’s conception of god was a weak tradition of monotheism. Muhammad was convinced that he had been chosen by Allah as Rasul Allah, Muhammad began to spread messages which condemned unfair practices and stressed on the social obligation of the wealthy people. Commerce was not in the centre of condemnation. He sought to establish a new sense of community based on the realization of the man before the creator. One of the first disciple s who accepted Prophet Muhammad’s mission was his wife khadija and his cousin ali. In course of time Muhammad could manage to gather a group of followers around him who shared his ideals. Most of his followers in the earlier stages were the members of the weaker clans, the junior member of the powerful clans, women and outsiders, slaves or client. In the beginning ideas of Muhammad were ignored. Gradually strict opposition began. In hard times his clan and its leader Abu Talib protected Muhammad and his followers. In 615/16 Muhammad decided to send some of followers to Ethiopia to protect weaker section among the Muslims from persecutions. They didn’t have clan backing. To resist this step other clans continued to exert pressure on Abu Talib. An economic and martial boycott was also instituted against the clan of hash mites (Hashemite may be). But finally all attempts failed and Muhammad was successful in converting the major opponent of Islam region umar ibn al khattab.the most significant crisis for Muhammad came in 619 A.D. when Abu Talib died and Abu wahab succeeded him. The later denied giving any clan protection to Muhammad and his followers. The prophet was therefore forced to look for a new home for himself and his community. Muhammad realized that to survive and let his new religion survive he had to migrate some other place. Islam had to harness the political and economic power of a major tribe or an alliance of tribes. Ultimately the migration to the oasis of yathrib which was later renamed medina took place. It was seen as a turning point in the history of Islam. The Mecca’s found Muhammad and his new religion intolerable. They also resented the attack on usury. In 620 A.D. Muhammad had began a dialogue with a delegation from medina and in 622 after prolonged negotiation, they pledged physically protection to Muhammad and his followers. Thereafter, Muslims began to emigrate to medina. Muhammad left Mecca secretly because he feared that the Mecca’s might stop him from leaving Mecca. Muhammad reached medina on the twenty fourth of September 622. It is same year which was symbolized by the decision to begin the Islamic calendar. Around the oasis in medina a group of Jews had settled. It was not a compact commercial hub like mecca. Rather it was an oasis inhabited by different tribal groups and a number of smaller but influential Jewish groups, Later Muslims emigrated at medina. They could not suddenly become agriculturists. To keep in competition and also to survive they resorted looking, kept one fifth to him to be spent on community affairs. The rest was the rest was distributed among the Muslims. The rest was distributed among the Muslims. Muhammad’s prestige was at its peak when he proved himself to be the most successful military leader. As a result more Arabs began to convert. In medina dissensions appeared between the Jews and the Muslims because the Jews didn’t believe in Muhammad’s claims. Some Jewish tribes also conspired with the Mecca’s. In 625 A.D. a major attack was launched against the Muslims. Seventy five Muslims were killed in the war that followed. The war an uhud failed to prove victorious for the Mecca’s. Later Muhammad encouraged Muslims to take four wives to solve the problems of the widows of those killed the war. The Mecca’s tried again with a much larger force but failed again. Muhammad’s success attracted more tribes to embrace Islam. The meccan’s realized that to survive and prosper they had to reach a treaty with the Muslims. Muhammad himself was not interested in destroying mecca and its people. He realised that any prolongation meccans by going to Ka’ba to perform hajj. Finally a truce was arranged and Mecca surrendered without a fight in 630 A.D. Muhammad tried to reconcile old a news ideas in his new religion. When mecca fell, the people were graciously accepted into the umrah. Most of treated as zimmis or protected people. the people of medina embraced Islam after the fall of Mecca. Those who didn’t were

According to Maritz Julius Bonn, “Imperialism” is a policy which aims at creating,  ‘organizing and maintaining an empire; that is a state of vast size composed of various more or less distinct national unit s and subject to a single centralized will”  Charles a beard wrote : “Imperialism is…..employment of the engines of government and diplomacy to  acquire territories, protectorates, and on spheres of influence occupied usually by other races or peoples, and to promote industrial, trade, and investment opportunities …..”A clear yet crisp definition was given by p.t. moon. He wrote, “Imperialism ….means domination of non- European native races by totally dissimilar European nations. “Thus moon clearly indicates domination of colored peoples of Asia and Africa by the Europeans who considered themselves superior and their colonial administration as burden on the white man. Though Beard excludes all economic motivations, the history of imperialism definitely points to economic exploitation as a primary drive in expansion of the empire by western countries. History reveals that the world has gone through many stages of development. It is known that the history of humankind is related to the development of society and social structures. Capitalism generally developed out of feudalism, and was Responsible for colonialisation and imperialism, Feudalism prevailed before the 16^th- 17^th century. In Europe, feudalism was generally associated with medieval states based on aristocracies (run by kings and nobles) who controlled the economic and political power of the state. The church too had an important role in the functioning of the feudal state. Feudalism as a system began to decay in different parts of Europe, beginning from England in the thirteenth century. The industrial revolution, the growth of towns, inter-feudal wars etc. led to this decline , social life in Europe thus began to change, this also involved a change from the feudal type economic organization to a different one where the control was no longer with the land owning aristocracies. Independent groups of merchants and traders began dominating the economy. This meant, thus, the growth of new classes which formed the bases for mercantile capitalism. The letter was a transition from feudalism to capitalism to capitalism, which was prevalent between the 16^th and 19^th centuries. The kind of transformation made by each nation out of feudalism differed. For example in England capitalism grew faster than in any other European nations. France followed this transition and later Germany, Russia and others did the same. Thus each transition was a unique experience. Industrialization in Europe led the capitalists to look for raw materials and markets outside Europe. This search fueled imperial penetrations into Asia and Africa. Capitalism can be defined as a system in which goods and services are produced for exchange in the market so that profit is made. The form of capital in the capitalist system is deferent from that of the feudal system where merchant capital was dominant. Under capitalism productive capital dominates, that is capital invested in labor power. Labor power is what the worker has to sell in exchange for money in order to survive. This labor power is then organized in the production process to produce new commodities for making more profit. Thus the capital of the merchants and financiers circulated and are invested for commodity production. The function of this merchant finance, Capital is determined and based on the need of productive capital. Labor power thus becomes like a commodity which can be bought and sold according to market prices. The growth of capitalism had an important effect on the social and political life of people and social systems. Just it had on their economic life. Capitalism brought about the formation of two large classes- the capitalist class (bourgeoisie) and the working class. In addition to these there also give rise to new political systems wherein besides landed aristocracies, other classes’ also shared state power as in England. Similarly it led to the overthrow of the French landed aristocracy and brought into being the French republic. Thus with capitalism began as era of private enterprises in the economic sphere and popular participation in the exercise of state power in the political sphere.

In the medieval period science gained a new momentum by adaptation of fresh techniques in relation to the methods of observation, experimentation and classification of different natural phenomenon. In the medieval period general theories were established on the basis of speculative reasoning. A value like empirical, experimental research was stressed on and thus formalizing of the empirical method into a general theory of inductive reasoning was done. It was a process of reasoning that establishes general truths on the basis of particular instances or empirical data. The early break through made by Copernicus, Tycho and kepler opened a window and allowed a fresh air of scientific enquiry. Galileo Galilee, the Italian scientist put emphasis on carefully controlled experiments. He discovered many basic principles of mechanics. He established the famous law of inertia. Galileo procured a telescope and began to study celestial bodies. He quickly discovered the first four moons of Jupiter. He was the first man to discover that the earth revolves around the sun. In this way he defied the Aristotelian views and Ptolemy’s astronomy. Isaac Newton combined experimental and inductive approach of bacon, Galileo and Gilbert. Newton developed a unified view of the universe in accordance with three different forces. The first law of Newton was relevant in the statement: an object at rest tends to stay at rest. An object in motion tends to continue at constant speed in a straight line. Newton’s second law of motion states that if more force is placed on an object, the more it accelerates. But the more it is massive the more it resists acceleration. The third and the final law states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. Newton used these three laws to calculate the gravitational force between the earth and the moon. The same year that Nicolas Copernicus published his helio-centric theory. Galen’s anatomy and medicinal theories were based on dissection of animal corpses in A.D.100’s. the scientific revolution also extended too many other areas. Modern physiology began in the early 1600’s with the work of William Harvey. The Dutch microscope maker Zacharias Janssen was the first to use combined lences.

Some contributors to the theory of ethnicity trace back its origins to the early works of Max Weber. Weber in one of his important contributions namely Economy and Society first published in 1922 and reprinted in 1968 regards an ethnic group to be a group whose members share a belief that they have a common ancestor or to put it differently ‘they are of common descent’. He qualifies his statement by suggesting that: Ethnic membership does not constitute a group; it only facilitates group formation of any kind, particularly in the political sphere. On the other hand, it is primarily the political community, no matter how artificially organized that inspires the belief in common ethnicity (1968:389).

It is apparent from Weber’s statement that biology had little role to play in cultivating ‘sense of belonging’. Weber perceived Ethnic group as a status group. A status group may be rooted in perceptions of shared religion, language or culture.

Members of the group on the basis of shared communality tend to form ‘monopolistic social closure’—that is they refuse to let others enter their exclusive domain. Every member of the group knows what is expected of him in situations of collective participation. They also function together to protect each other’s honor and dignity. It is on these perceptions that ‘suicide squads’ operate in political struggles. Weber also argues that ‘since the possibilities for collective action rooted in ethnicity are ‘indefinite’, the ethnic group, and its close relative nation, cannot easily be precisely defined for sociological purposes’. (for details refer to Jenkins, 1997:10). This profound statement by Weber enables us to understand how political acts of subversion under one regime are celebrated as heroic and patriotic by those who are seeking political sovereignty; and are condemned as acts of treason by those governing the nation states. You must be reading articles in Newspapers about ongoing struggle between Israel and Palestine and various other so called insurgent groups and the nation states. Ethnicity forms complex equations and simple cultural or ethnological explanations are not enough to unfold its mysteries.

Ethnicity as a theoretical tool for understanding complex questions of social interaction and political formations holds equal interest not only for sociologists but also for anthropologists and political scientists. In a broad sense, three approaches to the understanding of ethnicity can be considered, namely Primordialist,

Instrumentalist and constructivist.

In general ethnicity is defined as a comprehensive form of natural selection and kinship connections, a primordial instinctive impulse. Which continues to be present even in the most industrialized mass societies of today.(1981:35)

Socio-biological interpretations of ethnicity assume that there are tangible explanations for ethnicity. Some of the followers of this school are convinced that genetic linkages by it are responsible for accentuating ethnic ties. Another group within the same school thinks that biological and kinship ties evolve and are furthered by cultural influences. The explanations offered by various scholars suggest that this school of though is primarily rooted in evolutionary construction of human societies. Shaw and Wong (1989) argue that ‘recognition of group affiliation is genetically encoded, being a product of early human evolution, when the ability to recognize the members of one’s family group was necessary for survival’.

Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems, such as those connected with existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language.[1][2] It is distinguished from other ways of addressing such problems by its critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on rational argument. The word “philosophy” comes from the Greek (philosophia), which literally means “love of wisdom”
The following branches are the main areas of study:
* Metaphysics is the study of the nature of reality, including the relationship between mind and body, substance and accident, events and causation. Traditional branches are cosmology and ontology.
* Epistemology is concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge, and whether knowledge is possible. Among its central concerns has been the challenge posed by skepticism and the relationships between truth, belief, and justification.
* Ethics, or “moral philosophy”, is concerned primarily with the question of the best way to live, and secondarily, concerning the question of whether this question can be answered. The main branches of ethics are meta-ethics, normative ethics, and applied ethics. Meta-ethics concerns the nature of ethical thought, such as the origins of the words good and bad, and origins of other comparative words of various ethical systems, whether there are absolute ethical truths, and how such truths could be known. Normative ethics are more concerned with the questions of how one ought to act, and what the right course of action is. This is where most ethical theories are generated.[7] Lastly, applied ethics go beyond theory and step into real world ethical practice, such as questions of whether or not abortion is correct.[8] Ethics is also associated with the idea of morality, and the two are often interchangeable.
* Political philosophy is the study of government and the relationship of individuals (or families and clans) to communities including the state. It includes questions about justice, law, property, and the rights and obligations of the citizen. Politics and ethics are traditionally inter-linked subjects, as both discuss the question of what is good and how people should live.

Philosophy relation with Education can refer to either the academic field of applied philosophy or to one of any educational philosophies that promote a specific type or vision of education.

As an academic field, Philosophy relation with Educationis “the philosophical study of education and its problems…its central subject matter is education, and its methods are those of philosophy “The Philosophy relation with Education may be either the philosophy of the process of education or the philosophy of the discipline of education. That is, it may be part of the discipline in the sense of being concerned with the aims, forms, methods, or results of the process of educating or being educated; or it may be met disciplinary in the sense of being concerned with the concepts, aims, and methods of the discipline.”[2] As such, it is both part of the field of education and a field of applied philosophy, drawing from fields of metaphysics, epistemology, axiology and the philosophical approaches (speculative, prescriptive, and/or analytic) to address questions in and about pedagogy, education policy, and curriculum, as well as the process of learning, to name a few.[3] For example, it might study what constitutes upbringing and education, the values and norms revealed through upbringing and educational practices, the limits and legitimization of education as an academic discipline, and the relation between educational theory and practice.

Instead of being taught in philosophy departments, Philosophy relation with Education is usually housed in departments or colleges of education, similar to how philosophy of law is generally taught in law schools.[1] The multiple ways of conceiving education coupled with the multiple fields and approaches of philosophy make Philosophy relation with Education not only a very diverse field but also one that is not easily defined. Although there is overlap, Philosophy relation with Education should not be conflated with educational theory, which is not defined specifically by the application of philosophy to questions in education. Philosophy relation with Education also should not be confused with philosophy education, the practice of teaching and learning the subject of philosophy.

Studies on urbanisation and urban centres during the medieval period have largely remained a neglected and relatively less explored field. Medieval cities are generally seen as ‘parasitic’ depending largely on countryside, extracting large surplus to its own advantage while hardly giving back anything in return. Yet vibrant commercial activities provided a town a district character. There are many approaches to study the  medieval Indian, town R.Redfield and M.B. singer maintain, that generally speaking Indian cities emerged out of political, administrative, and cultural concerns and their commercial and industrial functions were insignificant. Hamida khatoon naqvi has highlighted the importance of political, stability in the growth of medieval Indian towns. She argues that, the highly centralized Indian states with base at Lahore, Delhi or Agra worked to foster viability and endurance in urban concentrations. The rise and full of medieval Indian towns corresponded largely to the vigour or weakness of the central political power. K.n. choudhury has focused upon the ‘complementarities of economic nodality and political attributed’. He defines commercial towns of mughal period as a case of ‘flag following the trade’.for him’political skills were essential to preserve their economic interests’. Satish Chandra, however, argues that the political integration resulting in unprecedented growth of towns is actually over emphasised. he questions, if that was so then why After the tugluq period following the disintegration of the political power, did not result in the decline of town ? satish Chandra, instead, links the growth of towns to agricultural expansion. He argues, taking the case of firuz shah tughlug’s reign when the sultanate shrank to half its size, that the period is marked by emergence of many new towns. As a result of Muhammad tughlugs network of canals and impacts of new technology and expansion of horticulture all this led to the growth of agrarian sector. He has emphasised that we cannot simply dismiss the Afghans as ‘merely warriors’. Instead, unlike the Turks Afghans settled in the countryside suggested that they must have had something more to do with agriculture. He applies the same argument to the 18^th century as well. He argues that evidence pertaining to the decline of cities during the 18^th century comes largely from literacy traditions. There is no doubt that Delhi faced a decline but only as a chief administrative centre. In 1772 Delhi is mentioned by shah nawuz khan as a flourishing city filled with all sorts of crafts. Dorgah quli khan in his muraqqa-i delhi speaks about the grandeur of markets of shahjahanabad city.chetan singh has also emphasised the growth of urban centres, particularly manufacturing centres in well developed agricultural zones away from the main trade routes. Irfan habib however, relates ‘urban decline’to‘agrarian crises.mughal cities declined in the 18^th century because the existence of towns and cities depended on agricultural surplus. K.n. chaudhury also accepts that the economic existence depended on the ability of the countryside to produce a surplus and the way in which the later was distributed. Henri pirenne has linked growth of medieval towns to long distance trade. In the Indian context R.S, Sharma in his well researched monograph Indian feudalism also argues that the growth and decline of long distance trade resulted in the growth and decline of the towns during early medieval period, although other historians have expressed doubts about the thesis of urban decline. I.P.Gupta while denying any significant role of administrative and military factors in the growth of urbanization and urban growth argues that ‘administrative and military influence in all the major cities and towns remained subdued to economic activities’. His estimates reveal that roughly 80-90 percent of the activities in the large urban centres in Gujarat were ‘economic’. There is no instance where a ‘fort’ assumed the status of an ‘urban’ out of the 33 forts reported in Gujarat in the 17^th century only 9 were located at the big and small towns. Even ‘religion and education centres were predominantly manufacturing centres. His study shows that Gujarat towns were largely performing the role of either manufacturing centre, or collection centres and distribution centres, or else were port towns. Ahmadabad, surat, broach cam bay pertained such multipurious activities. Chetan singh has also emphasised the economic base of the urban centres. Though some town derived their strength as important administrative centres their importance as thriving manufacturing centre as well as market and transit points cannot be ignored. He argues that though Lahore was an important administrative town, it derived its strength’ as a centre of considerable manufacturing and commercial activity’. It was situated on the major land route providing connectivity across India to Middle East and Iran. Its economy was entirely dependent upon the mughal ruling class or upon imperial patronage. He highlight the decentralising tendency of the urban centres in the Punjab region that ‘no single town was economically important enough to control the urban artisanal production of the region such growth according to him was instrumental in the incorporation of hitherto peripheral areas into the urban network.

The beginning of our period saw unprecedented growth of towns. The process continued, even got accelerated up to the close of our period. Medieval towns were centres of manufacture and commercial activities. There appears to existed hierarchy among the towns. There were qasbas and balda/shahr,baras and bandars. Certain cities were ‘primate’ cities largely depending upon state patronage for their power and position. Notetheless they were vibrant centres of commercial and manufacturing activities. This hierarchy was also markedly presented within the town itself. There were palaces, havelis, on the one side, while at the lowest level people lived in hutments. Medieval towns wre marked by ‘urban characteristics that S.C.Misra calls ‘peasant urbanites’. Between town and country there existed a ‘symbiotic’ relationship.

The term ‘civil society’ was used by writers such as Locke and Rousseau to describe civil government as differentiated from natural society or the state of nature. The Marxist concept derives from Hegel. In Hegel, civil or bourgeois society, as the realm of individuals who have left the unity of the family to enter into economic competition, is contrasted with the state, or political society. For Hegel it is only through the state that the universal interest can prevail, since he disagrees with Locke, Rousseau or Adam Smith that there is any innate rationality in civil society, which will lead to the general good. Marx uses the concept of civil society in his critique of Hegel. Marx uses civil society in his early writing as a yardstick of the change from feudal to bourgeois society. Civil society arose, Marx insists, from the destruction of medieval society. Previously individuals were part of many different societies, such as guilds or estates each of which had a political role, so that there was no separate civil realm. As these partial societies broke down, civil society arose in which the individual became all-important. The old bonds of privilege were replaced by the selfish needs of atomistic individuals separated from each other and from the community. The only links between them are provided by the law, which is not the product of their will and does not conform to their nature but dominates human relationships because of the threat of punishment. The fragmented, confliction nature of civil society with its property relations necessitates a type of politics, which does not reflect this conflict but is abstracted and removed from it. The modern state is made necessary and at the same time limited by the characteristics of civil society. The fragmentation and misery of civil society escape the control of the state, which is limited to formal, negative activities and is rendered impotent by the conflict, which is the essence of economic life. The political identity of individuals as citizens in modern society is severed from their civil identity and from their function in the productive sphere as tradesman, day-laborer, or landowner.

Although Gramsci continues to use the term to refer to the private or non state sphere, including the economy, his picture of civil society is very different from that of Marx. It is not simply a sphere of individual needs but of organizations, and has the potential of rational self-regulation and freedom. Gramsci insists on its complex organization, as the ‘ensemble of organisms commonly called ‘private’ where

‘Hegemony’ and ‘spontaneous consent’ are organized. He argues that any distinction between civil society and the state is only methodological, since even a policy of non-intervention like laissez-faire is established by the state itself. The metaphors he uses to describe the precise relationship between the state and civil society vary. A fully developed civil society is presented as a trench system able to resist the incursions of economic crises and to protect the state. Whereas Marx insists on the separation between the state and civil society, Gramsci emphasizes the inter-relationship between the two. The state narrowly conceived as government is protected by hegemony organized in civil society while the coercive state apparatus fortifies the hegemony of the dominant class. Yet the state also has an ethical function as it tries to educate public opinion and to influence the economic sphere. In turn, the very concept of law must be extended, Gramsci suggests, since elements of custom and habit can exert a collective pressure to conform in civil society without coercion or sanctions.

The Civil Disobedience Movement led by M K Gandhi, in the year 1930 was an important milestone in the history of Indian Nationalism. There are three distinct phases that mark the development of Indian Nationalism. In the first phase, the ideology of the moderates dominated the political scenario. This was followed by the prominence of the extremist ideologies. In the third phase of Indian Nationalism the most significant incident was the rise of MK Gandhi, popularly known as Mahatma Gandhi, to power as the leader of Indian National Movements. Under his spirited guidance, the National Movements of the country took shape. The Indians learnt how apparently philosophical tenets like non violence and passive resistance, could be used to wage political battles. The programs and policies adopted in the movements spearheaded by Gandhi reflected his political ideologies of ahimsa and satyagraha. While the Non-Co-Operation Movement was built on the lines of non violent non co operation, the essence of The Civil Disobedience Movement was defying of the British laws. Through his leadership to the National Movements, he not only buttressed his political stance but also played a crucial role in unification of the country, awakening of the masses, and bringing politics within the arena of the common man.

Factors Leading to the Civil Disobedience Movement

The prevalent political and social circumstances played a vital role in the launching of the Civil Disobedience Movement. The Simon Commission was formed by the British Government that included solely the members of the British Parliament, in November 1927, to draft and formalize a constitution for India. The chairmanship of the commission rested with Sir John Simon, who was a well known lawyer and an English statesman. Accused of being an ‘All-White Commission’, the Simon Commission was rejected by all political and social segments of the country. In Bengal, the opposition to the Simon Commission assumed a massive scale, with a hartal being observed in all corners of the province on February 3rd, 1928. On the occasion of Simon’s arrival in the city, demonstrations were conducted in Calcutta. In the wake of the boycott of the recommendations proposed by Simon Commission, an All-Party Conference was organized in Bombay in May of 1928. Dr MA Ansari was the president of the conference. Motilal Nehru was given the responsibility to preside over the drafting committee, appointed at the conference to prepare a constitution for India.

Barring the Indian Muslims, The Nehru Report was endorsed by all segments of the Indian society. The Indian National Congress pressurized the British government to accept all the parts the Nehru Report, in December 1928. At the Calcutta Session of the Indian National Congress held in December, 1928, the British government was warned that if India was not granted the status of a dominion, a Civil Disobedience Movement would be initiated in the entire country. Lord Irwin, the Governor General, after a few months, declared that the final objective of the constitutional reforms was to grant the status of a dominion to India. Following this declaration, Gandhi along with other national leaders requested the Governor General to adopt a more liberal attitude in solving the constitutional crisis. A demand was made for the release of the political prisoners and for holding the suggested Round Table Conference for reflecting on the problems regarding the constitution of the country.

None of the efforts made by the Congress received any favorable response from the British government. The patience of the Indian masses were wearing out. The political intelligentsia of the country was sure that the technique of persuasion would not be effective with the British government. The Congress had no other recourse but to launch the Civil Disobedience Movement. In Bardoli, the peasants had already taken to satyagraha under the guidance of Sardar Patel in the year 1928. Their non tax agitations were partially successful. The Congress took the decision to use the non violent weapon of satyagraha on a nation wide scale against the government.

The Launch of the Civil Disobedience Movement

MK Gandhi was urged by the Congress to render his much needed leadership to the Civil Disobedience Movement. On the historic day of 12th March 1930, Gandhi inaugurated The Civil Disobedience Movement by conducting the historic Dandi Salt March, where he broke the Salt Laws imposed by the British Government. Followed by an entourage of seventy nine ashramites, Gandhi embarked on his march from his Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi that is located on the shores of the Arabian Sea. On 6th April 1930, Gandhi with the accompaniment of seventy nine satyagrahis, violated the Salt Law by picking up a fistful of salt lying on the sea shore. They manually made salt on the shores of Dandi.

Dandi Salt March had an immense impact on the entire nation. Each and every corner of the country was gripped in a unique fervor of nationalism. Soon this act of violation of the Salt Laws assumed an all India character. The entire nation amalgamated under the call of a single man, Mahatma Gandhi. There were reports of satyagrahas and instances of law violation from Bombay, Central and United Provinces, Bengal and Gujarat. The program of the Civil Disobedience Movement incorporated besides the breaking of the Salt Laws, picketing of shops selling foreign goods and liquor, bonfire of cloth, refusal to pay taxes and avoidance of offices by the public officers and schools by the students. Even the women joined forces against the British. Those from orthodox families did not hesitate to respond to the call of the Mahatma. They took active part in the picketing exercises. Perturbed by the growing popularity of the movement, the British government imprisoned Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru, in a bid to thwart it. Thus, the second struggle for attaining Swaraj launched by the Congress, under the able guidance of Mahatma, served the critical function of mobilizing the masses on a large scale against the British.

In the March of 1930, Gandhi met with the Viceroy, Lord Irwin and signed an agreement known as the Gandhi-Irwin Pact. The two main clauses of the pact entailed; Congress participation in the Round Table Conference and cessation of The Civil Disobedience Movement. The Government of India released all satyagrahis from prison.

Renewal of the Civil Disobedience Movement

Gandhi attended The Second Round Table Conference in London accompanied by Smt. Sarojini Naidu. At this Conference, it was claimed by Mahatma Gandhi that the Congress represented more than eighty five percent of the Indian population. Gandhi’s claim was not endorsed by the British and also the Muslim representative. The Second Round Table Conference proved to be futile for the Indians and Gandhi returned to the country without any positive result. The political scene in India thereafter assumed an acute dimension. The Viceroy, Lord Willingdon, in the absence of Gandhi, adopted the policy of repression. The Gandhi-Irwin Pact was violated and the Viceroy took to the suppression of the Congress. The Conservative party, which was in power in England, complied with the decision to assume a repressive stance against the Congress and the Indians. The Congress was held responsible by the government to have instigated the ‘Red Shirts’ to participate in The Civil Disobedience Movement, led by Khan Abdul Ghaffar and provoking the cultivators of U.P to refuse to pay land revenue. Adding to this was the serious economic crisis that took hold of the country. Under such circumstances, the resumption of The Civil Disobedience Movement was inevitable.

The Congress Working Committee took the decision to restart The Civil Disobedience Movement, as the British government was not prepared to relent. Gandhi resumed the movement in January 1932 and appealed to the entire nation to join in. The Viceroy was also informed of the stance assumed by the Congress. Four ordinances were promulgated by the government to deal with the situation. The police was given the power to arrest any person, even on the basis of mere suspicion. Sardar Patel, the President of Congress and Gandhi were arrested, along with other Congressmen. The second phase of The Civil Disobedience Movement lacked the organization that marked its first phase. Nonetheless the entire nation put up a tough fight and the movement continued for six months. Gandhi commenced his twenty one days of fast on May 8th, 1933, to make amends for the sins committed against the untouchables by the caste Hindus. The Civil Disobedience Movement was suspended, when Mahatma Gandi withdrew mass satyagraha on July 14th 1933. The movement ceased completely on April 7th 1934.

Although The Civil Disobedience Movement failed to achieve any positive outcome, it was an important juncture in the history of Indian independence. The leadership of Mahatma Gandhi had a beneficial impact. The warring factions within the Congress united under the aegis of The Civil Disobedience Movement, led by Mahatma Gandhi. Satyagraha was put on a firm footing through its large scale usage in the movement. Last but not the least India rediscovered its inherent strength and confidence to crusade against the British for its freedom.

Various stages of Indian Colonialism

Western explorer Vasco – d – Gama discovered a new sea route to South India from Europe. Portugal’s made a note of India and stated coming to India on business and religious expansion purposes. Britishers among others wanted to increase business with India. East India Company of U.K. (Great Britain) stated major business ventures with India and within India. To protect their business they brought British troops to India. East India Company got involved in local politics and fights of small Indian kingdoms of the Indian subcontinent. They started political aggressions and take-over. East India Company of U.K. was taken over by the British government due to their lack of accountability despite full liberty they enjoyed in Indian operations.

Britishers started from taking over Calcutta and west Bengal to South India and Tipu sultan. Over a period of time much powerful Independent kinddom fell under the British rule inspire of their brave struggles. One of the last to fall was the Marathas. India became a colonial subject country of the British crown with most of the India under the rule of the Viceroy and the British administration nominated and controlled by the British government and the British crown. Only a very small fraction remained under Portugal authority. French and Portuguese were defeated and their colonies taken over by britishers. However a handful of Portuguese colonies (very small fraction of India) remained in Portuguese hand till even after the Indian Independence. The first armed struggle for independence of India in the year 1957 which the British historians call the great mutiny of 1957 was fought by many powerful Indian kingdoms that were colonialized by the foreigners and some Indian troops who revolted against their british rulers. British handled the year 1957′s freedom struggle with a very heavy hand and were able to subdue the freedom fighters. Political invasions of the British also proved to be an economical aggression where the Indian wealth started going over to the britishers during the Industrial revolution and other times. Britishers brought trains, telegraphs etc. to India for their convenience of ruling India. But Indian economy was in shambles and U.K. getting better and better in wealth and economy through the economic victimization of Indians and India. Britishers had to leave India in 1947 in response to the Indian struggles for independence. India became independent in 1947. In 1950 India became a democratic independent republic. Since 1950 India is ruled by the democratic government of the Indians that is elected democratically by the Indian citizens

Today, many researchers believe that they are five core personality traits. Evidence of this theory has been growing over the past 50 years, beginning with the research of D. W. Fiske (1949) and later expanded upon by other researchers including Norman (1967), Smith (1967), Goldberg (1981), and McCrae & Costa (1987).

The “big five” are broad categories of personality traits. While there is a significant body of literature supporting this five-factor model of personality, researchers don’t always agree on the exact labels for each dimension. However, these five categories are usually described as follows:

Extraversion: This trait includes characteristics such as excitability, sociability, talkativeness, assertiveness and high amounts of emotional expressiveness.

Agreeableness: This personality dimension includes attributes such as trust, altruism, kindness, affection, and other prosocial behaviors.

Conscientiousness: Common features of this dimension include high levels of thoughtfulness, with good impulse control and goal-directed behaviors. Those high in conscientiousness tend to be organized and mindful of details.

Neuroticism: Individuals high in this trait tend to experience emotional instability, anxiety, moodiness, irritability, and sadness.

Openness: This trait features characteristics such as imagination and insight, and those high in this trait also tend to have a broad range of interests.

It is important to note that each of the five personality factors represents a range between two extremes. For example, extraversion represents a continuum between extreme extraversion and extreme introversion. In the real world, most people lie somewhere in between the two polar ends of each dimension.

Big 5 Personality Research

McCrae and his colleagues have also found that the big five traits are also remarkably universal. One study that looked at people from more than 50 different cultures found that the five dimensions could be accurately used to describe personality.

Based on this research, many psychologists now believe that the five personality dimensions are not only universal; they also have biological origins. Psychology David Buss has proposed that an evolutionary explanation for these five core personality traits, suggesting that these personality traits represent the most important qualities that shape our social landscape.

Final Thoughts

Always remember that behavior involves an interaction between a person’s underlying personality and situational variables. The situation that a person finds himself or herself in plays a major role in how the person reacts. However, in most cases, people offer responses that are consistent with their underlying personality traits.

These dimensions represent broad areas of personality. Research has demonstrated that these groupings of characteristics tend to occur together in many people. For example, individuals who are sociable tend to be talkative. However, these traits do not always occur together. Personality is a complex and varied and each person may display behaviors across several of these dimensions.

Historically, the philosophy of human development has stemmed from the Biblical understanding of original sin, Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s intimations of innate goodness, and John Locke’s postulation that we are born with a psychological blank slate (Boyd & Bee, 2006). However, in the 19^th century the study of human development was given legs to its already well-defined frame in the form of the theory of evolution, as put forth by Charles Darwin. With the idea of evolutionary stages in place, G. Stanley Hall of Clark University was able to formulate his theory of norms, which hypothesize that human development can be segregated into identifiable phases, and Arnold Gesell was able to suggest his theory of maturation, which was largely dependent on genetic predisposition. From these beginnings the lifespan development perspective of human psychology has been largely concerned with the physiological, psychological, cultural, genetic, and environmental context of individual human development from conception to old age (Baltes & Staudinger, 1999; Boyd & Bee, 2006). Moreover, the lifespan perspective (LSP) of development can be put into context through the models of both human development domains and developmental periods, the major characteristics of LSP, and the contemporary concerns about LSP.

Human Development Domains

LSP is concerned with three separate, but principally overlapping, domains of human development: physical domain (ontogenesis), cognitive domain, and social domain. The physical domain of LSP studies the physiological changes that occur over a lifetime, such as puberty, menopause, and bone loss. On the other hand, the cognitive domain researches changes in thinking, problem-solving, and memory that occur throughout life. This domain of LSP is concerned with everything from how children learn to read to memory deterioration in old age. Lastly, the social domain of LSP analyzes the cultural and environmental progression of human development, including individual differences in personality and children’s social skill development. These three domains constitute the broad strokes, rather than the rigid categories, of the LSP, and serve to organize discussion and research on human development.

Developmental Periods

Child development theorists hypothesize that several critical periods exist within human advancement—periods in which humans are predisposed, either genetically or environmentally, to a particular type of learning. For instance, children might be inclined to learn language more proficiently during a certain set of years or baby ducks might only be able to identify parental attachment within the so many days of hatching. Furthermore, the more common understanding of sensitive periods postulates that individuals are only receptive to specific forms of experience, or lack thereof, for the duration of a span of months or years. In the realm of sensitive periods learning is more likely during times of receptivity, but no altogether absent at other times. For example, if a child does not form a parental bond during infancy, then a parental bond is still possible, but less likely, to form in early childhood. On the other end of the spectrum, atypical development encompasses the sphere of abnormal behavior, psychopathology, and maladaptive development. The study of atypical development in LSP seeks to understand developmental periods and pathways that lead to harmful behaviors, such as extreme aggression in children or compulsive gambling in adults. These different periods and pathways —critical, sensitive, and atypical—form the basis of individual differences in the LSP of development.

Characteristics of LSP

LSP leverages a wide variety of concepts and paradigms to the end of understanding human development in the broadest terms possible. Of particular interest to LSP research is the struggle to reconcile the nature versus nature controversy, the continuity versus discontinuity issue, and the psychological prediction of the future self by the present self. In the early days of human development research it was assumed that either nature or nurture comprised the bulk of explanation for human behavior. More recently most psychologists have adopted a more comprehensive understanding of the nature/nurture controversy. For instances, inborn biases is a concept now used to describe the interplay of genetics and environment, explaining that nature influences, rather than determines, our reactions to predisposed factors. Additionally, the continuity versus discontinuity issue deals with the debate over whether age-related change is chiefly a matter of degree or type—meaning does change happen upon a continuous quantitative continuum or a disconnect qualitative gamut. If the case is the former, then stages of human development might be altogether irrelevant; if the latter, then stages might be particularly useful in the description of lifespan maturation. What’s more, the psychological prediction of the future self by the present self is not developmentally constant over a lifetime (Fortman, Giles, Honeycutt, & Ota, 2003). For instance, the future self might be of particular interest when determining which career path or degree path to pursue, but of less significance after retirement. From these areas of interest —nature/nurture, continuity/discontinuity, and the future prediction of self—it is clear that the characteristics of LSP cover a wide range of topics and concerns within the area of psychology, biology, and genetics.

Contemporary Concerns about LSP

Contemporary concerns about LSP include an eclectic and accommodative movement with the goal of formulating a comprehensive theory of human development. Drawing from the pools of psychoanalysis, behaviorism, and cognitive approaches psychologists are now formulating models of behavior that can better explain atypical or abnormal behavior, such as divorce or disruptive children. Furthermore, two main areas of interest to LSP have been: what is successful development and which regulatory processes underlie successful development (Ebner & Riediger, 2007). In recent years LSP has put forth the models of assimilative and accommodative coping, optimization in primary and secondary control, and the metamodel of selection, optimization, and compensation to try and explain these two foundational questions. Of further interest is work being done by Boerner and Jopp to integrate all of these contemporary theories into one comprehensive model of improvement/maintenance and reorientation, which brings together the theories’ main points. These contemporary models within the field of LSP seek to create a “theory of everything” to describe the gambit of human lifespan development from beginning to end.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the lifespan perspective of human development is built upon the foundation of several philosophical constructs, organized by domains and periods, characterized by a wide variety of psychological, biological, and genetic concerns; and contemporarily engrossed with an eclectic movement towards a comprehensive theory of everything. Nevertheless, whether development is mainly due to nature or nurture, continuous or discontinuous it is clear that development does take place over a lifetime, and the discipline of lifespan development is moving towards a more inclusive understanding of human behavior over a lifetime.

Cognitive Neuropsychology maps the connection between brain functions and cognitive behaviour. Patients with brain damages have been the most important source of research in neuropsychology. Neuropsychology also examines dissociation (“forgetting”), double dissociation and associations (connection between two things formed by cognition). Neuropsychology uses technological research methods to create images of the brain functioning. There are many differences in techniques to scan the brain. The most common ones are EEG (Electroencephalography), MRI and fMRI (functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging) and PET (Positron Emission Tomography). Cognitive Neuropsychology became very popular since it delivers good evidence. Theories developed for normal individuals can be verified by patients with brain damages. Apart from that new theories could have been established because of the results of neuropsychological experiments. Nevertheless certain limitations to the approach as it is today cannot be let out of consideration. First of all the fact that people having the same mental disability often do not have the same lesion needs to be pointed out (cf. ibid, pp.516-517). In such cases the researchers have to be careful with their interpretation. In general it could only be concluded that all the areas that the patients have injured could play a role in the mental phenomenon. But not which part really is decisive. Based on that future experiments in this area tend to make experiments with a rather small number of people with pretty similar lesion respectively compare the results from groups with similar syndromes and different lesions. In addition to that the situation often turns out to be vice versa. Some patients do have pretty similar lesions but show rather different behaviour (cf. ibid, p.517). One probable reason therefore is that the patients differ in their age and lifestyle (cf. Banich, Neuropsychology, p.55). With better technologies in the future one will be better able to distinguish the cases in which really the various personalities make the difference or in which cases the lesions are not entirely equal. In addition to that the individual brain structures which may cause the different reactions to the lesions will become a focus of research. Another problem for Cognitive Neuropsychology is that their patients are rare. The patients which are interesting for such research have lesions of an accident or suffered during war. But in addition there are differences in the manner of the lesion. Often multiple brain regions are damaged which makes it very hard to determine which of them is responsible for the examined phenomenon. The dependency on chance whether there are available patients will remain in future. Thereby predictions concerning this aspect of the research are not very reliable. Apart from that it is not possible yet to localise some mental processes in the brain. Creative thought or organisational planning are examples (cf. Eysenck & Keane, Cognitive Psychology, p.517). A possible outcome of the research is that those activities rely on parallel processing. This would support the idea of the modification of the information processing theory that will be discussed later on. But if it shows up that a lot of mental processes depend on such parallel processing it would turn out to be a big drawback for Cognitive Psychology since its core is the modularization of the brain and the according phenomena. In this context the risk of overestimation and underestimation has to be mentioned. The latter occurs because Cognitive Psychology often only identifies the most important brain region for the mental task. Other regions that are related thereto could be ignored. This could turn out to be fundamental if really parallel processing is crucial to many mental activities. Overestimation occurs when fibers that only pass the damaged brain region are lesioned, too. The researcher concludes that the respective brain region plays an important role in the phenomenon he analyses even though only the deliverance of the information passed that region (cf. ibid). Modern technologies and experiments here have to be developed in order to provide valid and precise results

Sociology is the science or study of the origin, development, organization, and functioning of human society; the science of the fundamental laws of social relationships, institutions, etc. It generally concerns itself with the social rules and processes that bind and separate people not only as individuals, but as members of associations, groups, and institutions, and includes the examination of the organization and development of human social life. The sociological field of interest ranges from the analysis of short contacts between anonymous individuals on the street to the study of global social processes. Most sociologists work in one or more specialties or subfields. In the early 20th century, sociologists and psychologists who conducted research in industrial societies contributed to the development of anthropology. Anthropologists also conducted research in industrial societies. Today sociology and anthropology are better contrasted according to different theoretical concerns and methods rather than objects of study. While socio-cultural evolutionists agree that an evolution-like process leads to social progress, classical social evolutionists have developed many different theories, known as theories of unilateral evolution. Socio-cultural evolutionism was the prevailing theory of early socio-cultural anthropology and social commentary, and is associated with scholars like Auguste Comte, Edward Burnett Taylor, Lewis Henry Morgan, Benjamin Kidd, L.T. Hob house and Herbert Spencer. Socio-cultural evolutionism represented an attempt to formalize social thinking along scientific lines, later influenced by the biological theory of evolution.

Anthropologists and sociologists often assume that human beings have natural social tendencies and that particular human social behaviors have non-genetic causes and dynamics (i.e. they are learned in a social environment and through social interaction). Societies exist in complex social (i.e. with natural resources and constraints) environments, and adapt themselves to these environments. It is thus inevitable that all societies change.

Specific theories of social or cultural evolution are usually meant to explain differences between coeval societies, by positing that different societies are at different stages of development. Although such theories typically provide models for understanding the relationship between technologies, social structure, or values of a society, they vary as to the extent to which they describe specific mechanisms of variation and change.

Early socio-cultural evolution theories—the theories of Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer and Lewis Henry Morgan—developed simultaneously but independently of Charles Darwin’s works and were popular from the late 19th century to the end of World War I. These 19th-century unilateral evolution theories claimed that societies start out in a primitive state and gradually become more civilized over time, and equated the culture and technology of Western civilization with progress. Some forms of early socio-cultural evolution theories (mainly unilateral ones) have led to much criticized theories like social Darwinism, and scientific racism, used in the past to justify existing policies of colonialism and slavery, and to justify new policies such as eugenics.

Most 19th-century and some 20th-century approaches aimed to provide models for the evolution of humankind as a single entity. Most 20th-century approaches, such as

Matrilineal evolution, however, focused on changes specific to individual societies. Moreover, they rejected directional change (i.e. orthogenetic, teleological or progressive change). Most archaeologists work within the framework of matrilineal evolution. Other contemporary approaches to social change include neo evolutionism, sociobiology, and dual inheritance theory, theory of modernization and theory of postindustrial society.

Homo sapiens, our own species, are distinct from other mammals: great apes such as chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans and from early hominids. At some point between 8 and 4 million years ago gorillas and then chimpanzees split off from the evolutionary line that would lead to humans. As Michael H. Hart explains in his fine book Understanding Human History, Australopithecus afarensis, our likely hominid forefather, lived in East Africa about 3.5 million years ago. The Australian anthropologist Raymond Dart (1893-1988) discovered the first fossil of an Australopithecus Africans, a slightly more evolved version of A. aphaeresis, in 1924 in southern Africa. It was neither ape nor human and caused a stir at the time. Prior to this find, most Western scholars had believed that humans evolved in Eurasia. Louis Leakey (1903-1972), the son of British missionaries, was an archaeologist and naturalist working in British-ruled East Africa. He went to school at Cambridge University in England, majoring in anthropology and graduating in 1926. From the very start Louis felt that our species arose in Africa, a concept which is now widely held but was controversial at that time. Through their tireless exploration and research, Louis and his English wife, the archaeologist and anthropologist Mary Leakey (1913-1996), made the Olduvai Gorge in the Serengeti region in northern Tanzania, famous for its wildlife, their domain. They made a series of spectacular pale anthropological and archaeological discoveries in East Africa and founded a Leakey family dynasty of leading scientists that is currently in its third generation. Lucy, the skeleton of an Australopithecus aphaeresis that lived 3.2 million years ago, was discovered in Ethiopia in 1974 by the American pale anthropologist Donald Johnson (born 1943) along with the French anthropologist Yves Coppens (born 1934). The genus Homo diverged from Australopithecines more than two million years ago with Homo habilis, which made very crude stone tools called Oldowan after the Olduvai Gorge. About 1.8 million years ago a new species, Homo erectus, arose in East Africa, the first hominid to spread out of Africa. The earliest fossil of Homo erectus (“human that stands upright”), the Java man, was discovered by Dutch physician and pale anthropologist Eugene Dubois (1858-1940) in 1891 on the island of Java, then under Dutch colonial rule. H. erectus existed not just in Africa but in parts of Eurasia as far as Java in Southeast Asia, but apparently never settled in Australia or the Americas; this was achieved by early modern Homo sapiens during the past 40,000 years.

The formulation of ‘aims of education’ within the paradigm of what is ‘good for the society. what ‘society’ needs most is bound to be misleading. Attempts to formulate ‘aims of education’ for the ‘society’ without regard or respect for the needs of those individuals who make it up must ultimately fail. Progress can be made in the ‘science of education’ if old questions are asked within the context of a new paradigm. In the context of the old paradigm – what is good for society – the implication of the question is that the aims of education should be formulated in terms of what ‘society’ needs most.  is bound to be misleading.  Aims for education make sense if they are formulated in the context of a paradigm which is appropriate to the needs of the individuals within the society. Ask the same questions in the context of the new cultural paradigm of wholism. What is best for the child and the society? With a perception of reality which is wholistic, there is no dichotomy individual vs. ‘society’. This makes sense because what is good for the child is good for the society. A wholistic view of education is based on the elimination of dichotomies such as individual/society. Wholistic education based on the biologically based needs and metaneeds of the individual automatically accomodates the needs of the society.

For Example Education cultures the mind of a man so that he can accomplish all his aims in life. Education, to justify itself, should enable a man to use the full potential of his body, mind and spirit. It should also develop in him the ability to make the best use of his personality, surroundings and circumstances so that he may accomplish the maximum in life for himself and for others.” (51) The purpose of education would be met if the schools provided  educational methods of self-development by which the individual can “gain complete possession of of all his powers.” Broadly speakly, education has two goals which are mutually dependent: cultivation and development of the individual and the improvement of society. But it is individuals who make up the society. Therefore the society improves with the improvement of the individuals who make it up.

Political aims and ideals of the adults in the society interfere with the basic aim of education which is to provide the individual with a foundation for successfully living in the world. There is a need for depth education – education of the ‘whole’ individual.   Specialization of knowledge must be accompanied by full human development. “The school should always have as its aim that the young man leave it as a harmonious personality, not as a specialist. The development of general ability for independent thinking and judgment should always be placed foremost.

Social Work Research refers to research conducted by Social scientist on various matters relating to Society. It is a critical and exhaustive investigation of society and others sectors around society. It is somewhat like an exploration of something in order to gain more clarity and at times to know its advantages and disadvantages, its strength and weaknesses. It is well known that scientific research is different from other type of information gathering and is based upon certain values and principles:-(a) it has a systematic set of procedures that is to be followed, (b) it follows a special code of ethics that includes integrity and neutrality in conducting research, (c) all elements of bias have to be eliminated or controlled as far as possible, (d) it is intended for public use. The aim of scientific research is to test and validate existing theories and to generate new ideas. Scientific research in Social Work is different from other types of information gathering method in Social Work.  Simply, Social Work research means the process of colleting and gathering of data from the society in order to obtain clear picture of the situations relating to society. In order to achieve the goals and objectives, the social worker or the social scientist uses various types of scientific methods and principles. The problem solving process of social work practice draws from the basis of scientific methods.

The two main method of Social Work Research are – qualitative research and quantitative research. Qualitative research emphasizes understanding of social phenomena through direct observation, communication with participants, or analysis of texts, and may stress contextual and subjective accuracy over generality. Whereas, quantitative research approach social phenomena through quantifiable evidence, and often rely on statistical analysis of many cases to create valid and reliable general claims.  In contrast to quantitative research, qualitative research methods do not have intent to generalize the findings. However they do have a potential to be transferred to similar situations. Qualitative methods are characterized by semi or unstructured research techniques. The study situations or behaviors that mostly cannot be placed in predetermined categories. In this method, the questions are open-ended and responses are in word form. It can well be said that quantitative research methods have an advantage over the quantitative methods. They help to understand the phenomenon which is little understood and their investigation and analysis need a considerable amount of flexibility in terms of methods used. Also many investigations are of a nature in which concepts cannot be reduced to variables amenable to quantitative analysis. Also these methods are even helpful to those who have difficulty in reading and fully understanding English language. In qualitative research technique of social research, the design emerges as the study unfolds, whereas in case of quantitative research technique all aspects of the study are carefully design before social data are collected. Qualitative research data is more ‘rich’, time consuming and less able to generalize but in case of quantitative technique of Social research, quantitative data is more efficient, able to test hypothesis and lacking contextual details.

Theory of Surplus Value

Following Adam Smith, Marx distinguished in a commodity, two aspects: they have a use-value and an exchange value. A commodity is an article, which can satisfy one or the other human need, is a use value. But a commodity is not just a useful article, which is to be produced and sold in the market, but to be exchanged with other commodities. How to measure the exchange value of commodities which have different use-values? What do wheat and linen have in common? One is produced by a peasant, other by a weaver.

They are the products of different types of useful labor. What they have in common is that they are both products of human labor in general, what Marx calls “abstract human labor”. On both products a certain amount of human labor has been spent.

That determines their exchange-value. The exchange-value or simply the value, as distinguished from the use-value, consists of the abstract labor incorporated in the commodity. The measure is not the time which the individual laborer may have spent which may be above or below average, but the average time needed on a given level of productivity, what Marx calls the “socially necessary labor-time”.

Capitalist production becomes possible when along with other commodities labor-power can be bought as a commodity. As any other commodity labor power has a use-value for the buyer and an exchange-value for the seller. For the buyer, (the capitalist), it has the use-value that it can work (produce). He uses, he consumes it for this purpose and pays the price — strange enough only afterwards – in the form of wages. For the worker his labor power has only an exchange value. He cannot use it for his own purposes, because he has no means of production. But he can sell it in order to make a living. The exchange value is determined as in the case of every other commodity by the labor-time necessary for its production or reproduction; that means, in this case by the cast of the “means of subsistence” needed to maintain the worker and his children, the future workers. The level of subsistence and of essential needs varies from situation to situation according to the level of development and other factors.

Emergence of Classes

When humanity first developed fire, it took thousands of years to complete the process — being able to turn heat back into motion. The same kind of process can be seen in the development of classes. When humans began to organize themselves in accordance with their relations of production (the division of labor), classes in society formed based on the different positions and roles humans found and created themselves in. What once was a society with little or no class structure, i.e. tribal or nomadic society, became a society that split and divided itself into a diversity of classes’ fulfilling a broad range of productive roles.

The motion of nature, dialectics, applies in class development as it applies in all things. As the productive forces of humans increased, and class distinctions deepened and divided further, soon the advancement of the productive forces reached such heights that certain classes were no longer necessary. The small craftsperson and shop owner were pushed out of existence by the advancement of modern industries that could produce a much greater quantity at much lower cost.

Karl Marx and Fredrick Engel’s explained the processes of change brought forth by Industrial revolution just beginning to unfold in a particular direction:

“Modern Industry has converted the little workshop of the patriarchal master into the great factory of the industrial capitalist. Masses of laborers, crowded into the factory, are organized like soldiers. As privates of the industrial army, they are placed under the command of a perfect hierarchy of officers and sergeants. Not only are they slaves of the bourgeois class, and of the bourgeois state; they are daily and hourly enslaved by the machine, by the over-looker, and, above all, in the individual bourgeois manufacturer himself. The more openly this despotism proclaims gain to be its end and aim, the pettier, the more hateful and the more embittering it is”.

There is nothing new or remarkable about these environmental considerations. We consider most of them when using our native “common sense”. We often make individual adjustments to our living and learning space(s) to be more functional or comfortable. However, sometimes these adjustments may diminish an others opportunity for learning. Tin foil or shades on windows reduce occasions for a view of the sky, a beautiful sunset, the landscape or an outside object used to illustrate a particular lesson. Shrinking the height of an existing classroom to reduce heating or cooling costs may alter the sound qualities or prevent the display of student work. Brightly colored walls or high light levels may increase glare and possibly unwanted heat gain through lamp radiation. Hard cleanable surfaces may simplify maintenance tasks but increase reverberation or prevent teacher or student displays and consequently provide an atmosphere which is unpleasant to learn or teach within. All of these well intended decisions resulted in unintentional problems which are known to affect childrens’ learning ability or make education more difficult. When planning or remodeling a classroom environment, a successful (subjective) learning space requires that both the educator and environmental designer understand the affects of each criteria quality with respect to learning as well as each criteria’s interrelationship to each other.

Generally, the larger the room the more flexibility and the smaller, the more intimate. A rectangular shaped room affords more interactive visibility between occupants whereas “L” shaped ones or ones with alcoves allow for variety of privacy to individual learners. Movable wall devices can accommodate many different shapes. Scientific observations indicate that the student builds confidence through achievement. The ability to relate to elements within a room affords a degree of self empowering through scale that is relative. Size and locations of counters, windows, furniture and storage elements all should be considered or be adapted to the scale of the user. Several studies indicate that teachers rather than students are more upset by temperature fluctuations within a classroom. Test scores are not adversely affected by temperatures except under extreme conditions. Students generally like the temperature slightly cooler (5 degrees to 10 degrees) than do teachers. Traditionally, boy’s or men’s clothing insulates their bodies slightly better than doe’s girl’s or women’s clothing. Because the temperature, humidity and ventilation of an enclosed space will depend on a number of factors including the configuration and materials of the building, amount of glazing, size and volume of the space, number of occupants and their current state of activity as well as the heating and cooling system, flexibility for manipulating that system is extremely important for comfort. If the teacher must override existing controls by opening doors or windows to augment their comfort, the system is self defeated and the teacher probably agitated (i.e. not doing the best teaching). Controls should be independent for each space and be simple to operate.

A good classroom must include the possibility for individual control as well as provide a well proportioned, stimulating and comfortable learning space which takes advantage of local character, solar orientation, appropriate views, and proper functional interaction with adjoining learning elements and strong connections with the surrounding community. Allowing teachers to easily adapt learning environments to their individual pedagogical style(s) will increase the opportunity for student learning.

In 1992, the Board of Directors of National Council for the Social Studies, the primary membership organization for social studies educators, adopted the following definition:

Social studies are the integrated study of the social sciences and humanities to promote civic competence. Within the school program, social studies provides coordinated, systematic study drawing upon such disciplines as anthropology, archaeology, economics, geography, history, law, philosophy, political science, psychology, religion, and sociology, as well as appropriate content from the humanities, mathematics, and natural sciences. The primary purpose of social studies is to help young people develop the ability to make informed and reasoned decisions for the public good as citizens of a culturally diverse, democratic society in an interdependent world.

Social studies is taught in kindergarten through grade 12 in schools across the nation. As a field of study, social studies may be more difficult to define than is a single discipline such as history or geography, precisely because it is multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary and because it is sometimes taught in one class (perhaps called “social studies”) and sometimes in separate discipline-based classes within a department of social studies.

The significance of Social Studies and secondary School curriculum.

Social studies programs have as a major purpose the promotion of civic competence-which is the knowledge, skills, and attitudes required of students to be able to assume “the office of citizen” (as Thomas Jefferson called it) in our democratic republic. Although civic competence is not the only responsibility of social studies nor is it exclusive to the field, it is more central to social studies than any other subject area in the schools.

It is important for secondary students in social studies programs to begin to understand, appreciate, and apply knowledge, processes, and attitudes from academic disciplines. But even such discipline-based learning draws simultaneously from several disciplines in clarifying specific concepts. A study of the concept of “the common good,” for example, may draw upon some or all of the following:

* the discipline of history, to determine the concept’s origin, study primary source documents that define and address the concept, and analyze the concept’s development over time;

* the discipline of geography, to locate where the concept was first developed, map its movement from one continent or nation to another, and recognize the power of the diffusion of ideas as an example of global linkage;

* the discipline of _political science, _to determine the developing meaning of the concept as it is promoted or limited through existing political institutions, to study examples of actual practice related to the common good, and to acknowledge the need for citizen involvement in closing the distance between the ideal and reality;

* the discipline of sociology, to examine the role of individuals, groups, and institutions and their relationship and responsibility to the common good, and to develop an understanding of the complexities of those relationships resulting from the diversity of beliefs, values, and structures within and among them; and

* Communication abilities from language arts/English and the fine arts to enable students to express their understanding of the concept in a personally meaningful way.

* Social issues, such as poverty, crime, and public health, are increasingly understood to transcend the boundaries of disciplines, cultures, and nations. As these issues grow increasingly complex, the work to develop solutions demands an increasingly integrated view of scholarly domains and of the world itself.

The oceanic trade in medieval world start, from around the seventh century to the mid eighteenth century. The period under discussion starts with the advent of Islam in Arabian world and ends with the British conquest Bengal. The rise of Islam towards the beginning of the seventh century, The British conquest of Bengal had changed the prevailing earlier. The rise of Islam had a great influence on oceanic trade not only in the Indian Ocean, but also in the Mediterranean. The Portuguese also played a vital role in the oceanic trade of Indian Ocean, though their presence was spectacular and significant, they were not able to make major changes in the Indian Ocean trade. The structure, dimension and organization of trade in the region remain unaltered until the coming of the European companies, especially the Dutch and the English. India’s overseas trade was greatly influenced by their presence. The European companies were involved in the export trade of three commodities mainly textiles, raw silk and saltpeter. These products had a great demand in the European market since Bengal was the main producer of these commodities; naturally it turned into an important commercial centre and the main centre of Asiatic trade, of the two major companies.  In the beginning the Indian merchants dominated the trade in the eastern archipelago. In the later period they are forced to abandon it and concentrate on the westerly trade. In the medieval period Arab and Muslim merchants build a vast commercial network. The coastal regions of the Indian Ocean between east Africa and the China Sea constituted a zone of intense commercial exchanges. From the middle of 7^th century to the end of the 15^th, the direction and structure of the Indian Ocean trade are remarkably clear, the transcontinental traffic going all the way from south china to the eastern Mediterranean. Up to the beginning of the 10^th century Arab and Muslim ships traded across the Indian Ocean to south Asia and china. The twin channels of the transcontinental trade of Asia. Constituted of the seaborne traffic through the red sea, the combined sea, river, and overland journey across the Persian Gulf, Iraq and the Syrian Desert. In medieval period trade of Asia was centered on four great products of eastern civilization-silk, porcelain, sandal wood and black pepper. In exchange for incense, thoroughbred horses, ivory, cotton textiles and metal goods were given. The Persian Gulf ships were sailed to canton in the late 7^th and early 8^th centuries. In 1280 Mongols conquered china. The two city parts of Hangchow and Zaiton flourished during the period. However there occurred important remarkable changes in the direction of the Indian Ocean trade from the end the 10^th century to the middle of 15^th. The decline of Abbasid caliphate and the rise of the Fatimid’s in Egypt shifted the routing of long-distance trade away from Baghdad and Damascus to Aden and fustat. In India, the Turkish sultans of Delhi conquered Gujarat in A.D. 1303-4, and its maritime towns were now within the reach of Islamic social and political influence. In the early medieval period continental Europe witnessed two great commercial movements, The One in the western Mediterranean and the Adriatic, the other in the Baltic and the North Sea. The trade of north Europe was not primarily based on oriental and Mediterranean commodities. At various times traders and warriors brought goods from the extreme north of Europe. The main currents of trade across northern Europe and between northern Europe and other countries flowed with products of northern hemisphere, cruder, bulkier and altogether more indispensable than the luxuries and the fineries. Indian maritime trade in the medieval period was also characterized by both continuity and change. In the past the products which had a good demand in the western market includes drugs, spices, the teak-wood of Malabar, precious stones and a great variety of exotic luxuries passed westwards. In lieu Indian markets were crowded with strategic war-animals, spices and medicaments, toys and exotic textiles. The trade between India and Indonesia was mainly concerned around various products including spices and raw materials of Indonesia. The rein of trade in Indonesia and Malay Peninsula was largely in the hands of Muslim merchants in the Indian Ocean. The Indonesian littoral was mainly inhabited by migrant Muslims from Gujarat. Cloths from Bengal were remarkably exported to Indonesian markets. There is also evidence to Indian trade with the horn of Africa and other communities of Arab peninsula. The discovery of direct maritime route to Asia round the Cape of Good Hope by the Portuguese under Varco d agama in 1498 marked the beginning of a new era in the history of euro-Asian trade, to monopolize the supply of Asian spices to European market and to control. Asian trade by force and to collect tax Portuguese formed a strong naval force and established some key outposts which would act as strategic bases. The capture of Goa from the bijapur sultan laid the foundation of future Portuguese maritime empire in the Indian Ocean. (MHI-01

The founder of Buddhism was Gautama Buddha. Buddhism as a religion does not put emphasis on religious worship of any idol rather it is based on the philosophy of ‘Nirvana’ or attainment of salvation as its highest goal. Buddhism flourished in India around the 1^st century A.D. Buddhism is not pre-dominantly a religion. It is a philosophy which aims at spiritual upliftment by following some moral norms. These ethical values were suggested by Gautama Buddha as eightfold path which is to be followed. In this world there are so many pains, sufferings and woes. To get rid of them and to bring absolute cosmos in a period of chaos, Gautama Buddha propounded the theory of philosophical retreat with highest moral and ethical values. The eightfold paths suggest by Gautama Buddha for attaining salvation included-Right living, right thinking, right conduct etc. religious or and kind of sacrifice and immoral practices are totally discouraged however divided into two part, Hinayana and Mahayana sect. the influence of Buddhism reached its highest peak in the 5^th and 8^th centuries A.D. Buddhism was absorbed gradually in many south east Asian countries- like Thailand, India china etc. it is in this period that the Buddhist sangha became very powerful. In china both Buddhism and Taoism gained ground precisely (exactly, accurately, specifically, correctly, just) in those periods, when the imperial system was in severe crisis. Mahayana Buddhism with its profound philosophy about the nature of suffering in this world, and its uplifting concept of compassion and salvation for mankind though sacrifice filled a philosophical and spiritual need among a large section of followers of Buddhism. In the centuries of political chaos and mass dislocation, the Buddhist sanga extended beyond the confines of the family and the state and provided a vital form of social integration. In India Buddhism faded out altogether at a particular period. But its influence was seen in the field of art, literature craft etc. Nalanda University and Buddhist stupas in India are brilliant examples of Buddhist influence.

Concept of Continuous comprehensive evaluation

Continuous comprehensive Evaluation should be carried out in relation to learners’ cognitive, affective and psychomotor growth. Cognitive growth refers to the intellectual development of learners (such as learners’ knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation). Affective growth emphasizes learners’ attitude, interest and personal development. Psychomotor growth deals with learners’ ability to perform some activity or do some practical work. Therefore, if you want the teaching-learning process to be really effective, you should evaluate the learners continuously and comprehensively

Hence to bring about the improvement in the quality of education and the holistic development of the child who is tomorrow’s global citizen, evaluation process should focus adequately on both scholastic and non-scholastic areas of development. Hence the focus needs to shift to comprehensive evaluation. The comprehensive evaluation also needs to have continuity at regular intervals through out the academic year. This thought is further gets support from the fact that the National Progressive Schools Association has also recommended the scrapping of class X board exams

This module focuses upon the various evaluation tools and techniques which can be used for decision making with reference to learners scholastic and non scholastic needs.

By comprehensive evaluation, we mean that evaluation should not concern itself only with knowledge but it shall also take into account the factors that are inherent in students’ growth such as skills, understanding, appreciation, interest, attitude and habits. In other words, evaluation should cover all the learning experiences of the learner in curricular as well as non-cognitive areas.

Need of Continuous comprehensive evaluation.

Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation is intended to provide a holistic profile of the learner through assessment of both scholastic and non-scholastic aspects of education spread over the total span of instructional time in schools.

It helps to identify those positive attributes of the learner which are not usually assessed during the examinations conducted by the Board

As it is spread over a period of two years in class IX and X it provides several opportunities for the school to identify the latent talents of the learners in different contexts.

This document is supportive to the statement of marks issued by the Board after the examinations conducted by it.

Essential aspects of Continuous comprehensive evaluation.

1.  To provide a holistic profile of the learner through assessment of both scholastic and non-scholastic aspects of education

2. To identify the latent talents of the learners in different contexts.

3. to identity strategies for raising Student Achievement

4. To plan a Comprehensive Evaluation Program to Improving Schools

5. To suggest suitable tools and techniques for achieving continuous comprehensive evaluation.

6. Use Evaluation for Continuous School Improvement

7. Using evaluation as a tool for continuous improvement of the school and the students.

8. To suggest ways of strategies of sensitizing school administrators, parents and the community about CCE.

Differences in individual personalities are caused because (i) the possibilities within it are different, and (ii) the provision of raw materials and appropriate conditions of stimulation by the environment vary widely. Guilford, for example charted the magnitude of similarity of pairs of children with respects of intelligence (IQ). Similariity in heredity varied from the same child (tested twice), to identical twins to only chance similarity in a pair of unrelated children. The difference in commonality between the second and third pairs stated above demonstrates the role of the environment (rearing-practice) while the trend from pair one to pair seven shows the role of heredity. Technically, environmental factors start exerting their influence through the uterine Environment during the prenatal stage. The dietary habits, the health of the mother, etc., may Cause prevail “insult” or damage to the developing organism. Some disabilities are inflicted upon the child by uterine environmental factors. During the first month or so, varying cultural patterns can be seen to shape the physical appearance of the child. For example, tough-shaping by a strong massage of the infant’s body in the northern states of India and tender-shaping of the nose of the girl-child by strong processing in the southern states of India. As the child grows, he faces and deals with several environment factors. The child gradually Grows in complexity, supporting or contracting various factors as the environment may be varying kinds. Let us discuss some of he environmental factors to see how they affect the growing personality o f an individual. Rearing patterns: Interactions between the infant and mother for satisfaction of biological needs play a significant role in personality development. Care and affection develop a sense of Security. Over-indulgence or under-indulgence of the mother in breast-feeding would determine the “oral” personality and severity in toilet-training is the “anal” personality. Regularity in feeding practices would develop in the child “basic trust” in the world, Irregularity would yield “mistrust”. Similarly, toilet-mining severity may cause the child to I grow into a doubting and shameful person, training “at ease” develops autonomy. Parent-child interaction: Once the child grows free of the needs of the mother, permanent-child Interactions assume social dimensions. Through the interactions, both the individual psyche And the social psyches are communicated to the child and the child develops in him/her “Individuals”.

The research process is the paradigm of research process. In the research project, researcher engages themselves in various scientific activities in order to produce knowledge. All these activate are interdependent. The various activities are conveniently grouped into six stages, the first and one of the most important stages is “Formulation of research problem”. Two issues are involved in formulation of research problem understanding the problem thoroughly and rephrasing the same into meaningful terms form an analytical view. The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with one’s own colleagues or with those having some expertise in the subject. In an academic institution, researcher can seek the help from a teacher who is usually an experienced person. In governmental or non-governmental organizations, the problem is usually earmarked by the administrative heads with whom the researcher can discuss as to how the problem originally came about and what consideration are involved in its possible solutions. The researcher must at the same time examine all available literature to get them acquitted with the selected problem. They may review the literature concerning the concepts and theories and also the empirical literature consisting of studies made earlier which are similar to the proposed. The basic outcome of this review will be the knowledge as to what research questions have been explored and what the findings were. This will enable the researcher to specify their own research problem in a meaningful context. After this, the researcher rephrases the problem into analytical or operational terms i.e., states the problem in as specific terms as possible, this task of defining a research problem in a step of greatest importance in the entire research process. Formulation of the problem often follows a sequential pattern where the number of formulations are set up, each formulation more specific than the preceding one, each one phrased in more analytical terms of the available data and resources. Once a research problem has been identified, it needs to be defined. The definition of a problem amounts to specifying it in detail and narrowing it down to workable size. The research topic should be defined in such a way that it is clearly understood. If we are studying, for example, alcoholism; we need to put our research question into a framework which suggests that we are very clear specific about the problem of school consumption and abuse. While define the problem, it is necessary to formulate the point of view on which the research study is to be based. In case certain assumptions are made, they must be explicitly stated. A good statement of a problem must clarify what is to be determined or what is the research question. It must restrict the scope of the study to specific and workable research questions. All questions raised must be related to the problem. Each major issue or element should be separated into subsidiary elements, and those should be arranged in a logical order under the major divisions. The most important step in this direction is to specify the variables involved in the problem and define them in operational terms. The variables involved in the problem are “effictiveness”and“empowerment”.The dictionary meaning of”effectiveness”is “producing the desired effect”. But this meaning is not sufficient for research purposes. It is important for us to specify exactly what indicators of effectiveness we will use or what we will do to measure the presence or absence of the phenomenon denoted by the term”effictiveness”.Similarly, we can define the other varible”empowerment”. The term “empowerment” might refer to the scores on the achievement test in empowerment. There must be the evaluation of these problems and for that researcher should evaluate a proposed problem in the light of our competence and professional experience, the financial and field constraints, and limitations of time. After evaluating a broad research problem we have to narrow it down to a highly specific research problem. we formulate the problem by stating specific questions for which we would seek answers through the application of scientific method. IT is worthwhile for us to ask our self a series of questions before we undertake the research. The questions should be helpful in the evaluation of the problem on various criteria.

In social work practicum, social workers perform various roles to promote social development of the society. While social workers performing various fields work, they have to keep in mind the factors relating to the social work practicum. The various central themes of Social Work Practicum are given below:

I) Preparation: A student consisting field work placement should accept personal strengths, weaknesses and emotions that could help or impede field work. Even though there may be areas that cannot be foreseen, there are others that can be anticipated and the students can prepare for the upcoming events. Some of them are as follows-

a) Building relationship with field instructor, staff and the clients.

b) Finding and accepting ones role and position in the agency.

c) Identifying and getting to know the agency and social work programs staff that will help answer questions, deals with problems and crisis situation.

Social Work practicum helps the student identify with the profession and establish personal and professional boundaries. Field work is an opportunity to adjust to transitions, variety of roles and stresses.

II) Safety issue in the field: As a social worker student, one should always keep safety as they are at risk of having work related violence towards them. Students may confront various kinds of harassments during the practicum like sexual harassment. Students may be threatened by clients, staff and other professionals. Identifying threats to physical, emotional and mental safety and taking reasonable precautions are necessary for effective functioning.

III) Supervision: Supervision is a form of teaching by a seasoned social work practitioner who imparts training and education with some level of authority. The mentoring relationship would include advising, consulting, understanding and helping. It is different from job supervision because practicum supervision involves a teacher learner relationship and not to oversee if the job is performed well.

IV) Organization of the agency: A student always works within the organization’s values, objectives, philosophy and resource. Knowledge of the organization is important to offer the best possible service to clients and for work with staff and other agencies.

V)  Practicum with individual and families: This requires systems theory knowledge and development of skills and techniques. Skills required in this area are to explore the problem, feelings, goal settings, termination and application of appropriate treatment. Critical thinking and conceptual understanding required to integrate theories and treatment strategies is sharpened during field work.

VI) Practicum with groups: In practicum with groups, skills like communication, education, mediation and negotiation are useful. Leading groups through discussions, conflict or education enables the student to gain valuable skills that come in useful in intervention and at the work place with colleagues and supervisees.

VII) Practicum in the community: Students of social work may require working with a community. In this case, skills required for administrative social workers could include budgeting, financial management, working with boards, organizational design, development and diagnosis, computer information system, networking, marketing and media relations.

VIII) Legal issues in social work practicum: As a student of social work, one need to be aware of the legal implications of situations and activities related to courts and the law. It could include testifying in court, providing mediation, petitioning the court, help in class action lawsuits, advocating and helping draft legislation.

To prepare for termination, at the end of the practicum period, the students get ready to close and cases and projects. This closure is important for the student to come to terms with the end of practicum and focus on knowledge, skills and values gained during practicum, and note areas of learning for the future.

Industrialization is a process of technological, economic and social change which transforms a pre industrial society to an industrial society. It is a part of a wider modernization process, where social change and economic development are closely related with technological innovation .It is  the extensive organization by which traditionally non-industrialsectorssuch as,agriculture,education,health of an economybecome increasingly-similar to the manufacturing sectorof the economy. Sustained economic development based on factory production, division of labor, concentration of industries and populationin certain geographical areas, and urbanization. Industrialization also introduces a form of philosophical change where people obtain a different attitude towards their perception of nature, and a sociological process of ubiquitous rationalization.

The term social change is used to indicate the changes that take place in human interactions and interrelations. A social movement is generally oriented towards bringing social change.Technology has contributed to the growth of industries or to the process of industrialization. Industrialization is a term covering in general terms the growth in a society hitherto mainly agrarian of modern industry with all its circumstances and problems, economic and social. It describes in general term the growth of a society in which a major role is played by manufacturing industry. The industry is characterized by heavy, fixed capital investment in plant and building by the application of science to industrial techniques and by mainly large-scale standardized production. The Industrial Revolution of 18th century led to the unprecedented growth of industries. Industrialization is associated with the factory system of production. The family has lost its economic importance. The factories have brought down the prices of commodities, improved their quality and maximized their output. The whole process of production is mechanized. Consequently the traditional skills have declined and good number of artisans has lost their work. Huge factories could provide employment opportunities to thousands of people. Hence men have become workers in a very large number. The process of industrialization has affected the nature, character and the growth of economy. It has contributed to the growth of cities or to the process of urbanization.

In many countries the growth of industries has contributed to the growth of cities. Urbanization denotes a diffusion of the influence of urban centers to a rural hinterland. Urbanization can be described as a process of becoming urban moving to cities changing from agriculture to other pursuits common to cities and corresponding change of behaviour patterns. Hence only when a large proportion of inhabitants in an area come to cities urbanization is said to occur. Urbanization has become a world phenomenon today. As a result of industrialization people have started moving towards the industrial areas in search of employment. Due to this the industrial areas developed into towns and cities.

The introduction of the factory system of production has turned the agricultural economy into industrial economy. The industrial or the capitalist economy has divided the social organization into two predominant classes-the capitalist class and the working class. These two classes are always at conflict due to mutually opposite interest. In the course of time an intermediary class called the middle class has evolved.

Modernization is a process which indicates the adoption of the modern ways of life and values. It refers to an attempt on the part of the people particularly those who are custom-bound to adapt themselves to the present-time, conditions, needs, styles and ways in general. The scientific and technological inventions have modernized societies in various countries. They have brought about remarkable changes in the whole system of social relationship and installed new ideologies in the place of traditional ones.

An individual’ Personality is an aggregate conglomeration of decisions we’ve made throughout our lives. There are inherent natural, genetic, and environmental factors that contribute to the development of our personality. Personality is defined as the enduring personal characteristics of individuals.Although some psychologists frown on the premise, a commonly used explanation for personality development is the Psychodynamicapproach. The term Psychodynamic describes any theory that emphasizes the constant change and development of the individual.

Freud’s Psychoanalytic theory: The best known of the personality development theories is Freudian Psychoanalysis. He explained ‘personality’ as the existence of conscious, preconscious and unconscious in an individual. Freud believed that two basic drives—sex and aggression—motivate all our thoughts and behavior. Freud believed that personality had three parts—the id,ego, and super-ego—referring to this as the tripartite personality. The idallows us to get our basic needs met. Freud believed that the idis based on the pleasure principle. Ego functions as the manager of personality. It obeys the principles of reality. Super ego works on morality principles. It represents the value of society.  Freud believed that at particular points in the child’s development, a single part of the body is particularly sensitive to sexual stimulation. These erogenous zones are the mouth, anus and the genital region. At any given time, the child’s libidois focused on the primary erogenous zone for that age. As a result, the child has certain needs and demands that are related to the erogenous zones for that stage. Frustration occurs if these needs are not met, but, a child may also become overindulged, and so may be reluctant to progress beyond the stage. Both frustration and overindulgence may lead to fixation—some of the child’s libidoremains locked into that stage. If a child is fixated at a particular stage, the method of obtaining satisfaction that characterized that stage will dominate their adult personality.

Although many people view freud’s descriptions of personality development as pure fantasy, his ideas have endured and have had far reaching influences both in and outside psychology. Freud has changed the way we think about the importance of childhood, and also made us aware of the unconscious elements of our psychethat are essential for development.

Carl Roger’s Self Theory: Carl Roger proposed the self theory to explain personality development. There are two basic systems underlying Roger’s personality theory-the organism and the self. The acquirement of self concept is a long and continuous process. Self concept developed as a result of person’s interaction with social experience. For example, Gita’s friend Rima tells her that she is beautiful and intelligent. Gita will internalize this compliment in her concept of herself and she will make extra effort to maintain this self concept.

Abraham Maslow’s theory of Self-Actualization: According to Maslow, Human personality depends upon the fulfillment of inborn potential. He mentioned five stages of motivational fulfillment of personality development. The first stage is the most basic needs which include food, clothing and shelter. The second stage has the safety needs. The third stage has the need for belongingness and love. The fourth stage has the self esteem needs and the fifth stage, the highest stage there was the need for self actualization. Only after the satisfaction of a need at a lower level does the next need become dominant. Every individual moves up the steps of the given hierarchy, only after satisfying the basic needs that are essential for one’s survival one can think about reforming the society.

After independence, the expansion of welfare services in every dimension was seen in all the national planning and developmental program. This era witnessed a major shift in ideologies, concepts and approaches in social work profession. With the expansion of the welfare activities, economy, service sector, the field of social work practice also become wider to cater to the all the spheres. The approach and practice of social work being developed along with the development of the nation in terms of expansion of welfare services through both state and central government.

Initiatives in the field of Labor Welfare: After independence the states began relating their social responsibilities towards the weaker section of the society. The Govt. of India took various important steps like introduction of Factories Act, 1948 which provides various provisions relating to health, safety, welfare, employment of young persons and children, hours of work for adult and child workers, holidays, leave with wages and many more. Under Factories Act, 1948, there other provisions like appointment of Welfare Officer for the welfare of the worker section and Wage structure. Apart from these, all the five year plans have witnessed welfare and development initiative for huge labour force.

Initiative in the field of Tribal welfare: In the post-independence period, integrating tribal people into mainstream was extremely complex and thus become the major focus of the government. The preservation of their rich culture and social heritage was at the heart of the government policy and planning after independence. To make India into a welfare state and shaping its policy suites to support the objectives of the nation, the foundation stone was put in the Indian constitution itself. It provides equality before every front, reservation in the education, service section to mainstream them in the society. Following this, the Schedule Castes and Schedule Tribes Act, 1989 was enacted.

Initiatives in the field of Rural Development:The post-independence era has been many central and state initiatives combined with voluntary efforts in the field of Rural Development. The nilokheri project got operational in 1948 as the Refugee Rehabilitation Project. Under this project vocational training cum production centers were stated to give training and employment opportunities to the refugees.  After independence, the Community Development Project was started for developing rural communities. The CDP was conceived as an instrument to transform the socio-economic life of the village community and this project was able to create amongst the people owners towards their community and their willing participation for their own development.

Initiative in the Health Sector: After independence, the Government of India appointed a committee on “Health Survey and Planning Committee” to strengthen the primary health centers and district hospitals for effective performance.  The Health Schemes in India at the National level consist of (1) The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (2) Directorate General Health Services and (3) The Central Ministry of Health and Family Welfare.

Initiative in the field of Child Welfare: In the post independence period, the Government of India was not only concerned with the care of maladjusted, destitute and delinquents, but incorporates the social, economic and health services of both government and voluntary agencies for the welfare of all the children in all corners of the nation regarding education and health.

Initiatives in the field of youth: Youth welfare has assumed importance in recent years since Independence. Both Central and State govt. formulate various policies to promote youths to achieve their true potential in sports, leadership and other self oriented businesses. After independence, the expansion of social welfare services in every dimension, were seen in all the national planning and developing Programmes

India as a nation has seen a high migration rate in recent years. Over 98 million people migrated from one place to another in 1990s, the highest for any decade since independence according to the 2001 census details. However in 1970s migration was slowing down. The number of migrants during 1991-2001 increased by about 22% over the previous decade an increase since 1951. Apart from women migrating due to marriage, employment is the biggest reason for migration. The number of job seekers among all migrants has increased by 45% over the previous decade. Nearly 14 million people migrated from their place of birth in search of jobs. The overwhelming majority of these-12 million was men. Migrants have created pressure on others who are in same job market. While freedom to migrate within the country is an enshrined right the uneven development, levels of desperation and other factors have created friction points. Most people migrate because of a combination of push and pull factors. Lack of rural employment, fragmentation of land holdings and declining public investment in agriculture create a crisis for rural Indians. Urban areas and some rural areas with industrial development or high agricultural production offer better prospects for jobs or self-employment. Contrary to common perception the search for jobs is more often within the same state than in some other state. About 9 million persons were intra-state migrants often within the district while 5 million went to other states. The intra-state figures include people moving from villages to nearby towns and cities in search of better jobs. Over 5.7 million persons who moved in search of jobs migrated from rural to urban areas. Another 4.5 million migrated within the rural areas looking for work. The data shows that among people migrating in search of jobs, literates constitute the vast bulk over 10.6 million while illiterate migrants are about 3.3 million. Three out of four job-seeking migrants are educated males. Among literate, migrant job-seekers less than 1% was women. Nearly 40% of literate persons migrating for work had studied up to secondary level and another 32% had studied beyond. Graduates numbered over 1.8 million or about 17% while technical diploma or degree holders constituted about 8%. About 72% do get regular work but over 11 million get less than 183 days of work in a year. This is a higher proportion than non-migrants. Independent NSS data from 1999-2000 indicates that migrant workers take up regular or casual employment or self-employment in nearly equal proportions. Around 8.1 million of the migrants were reported as available for or seeking work. The census data may not fully reflect seasonal or circulatory migration, estimated to be up to 10 million by the National Commission on Rural Labor. Seasonal migrants are usually dalits and other highly impoverished sections that go out to work in harvesting seasons or on construction sites, in brick kilns, salt mines etc. They go out to pay their debts and to survive.

Social consequences of ecological degradation are As follows;

a. Water pollution and water scarcity: As per the estimation of UN, more than two million deaths and billions of illnesses a year are attributable to water pollution. Water scarcity compounds these health problems. Productivity is affected by the costs of providing safe water, by constraints on economic activity caused by water shortages, and by the adverse effects of water pollution and shortages on other environmental resources such as, declining fisheries and acquifer depletion leading to irreversible compaction.

b. Air pollution: As per the estimation of UN, urban air pollution is responsible for 300,000—700,000 deaths annually and creates chronic health problems for many more people. Restrictions on vehicles and industrial activity during critical periods affect productivity, as does the effect of acid rain on forests and water bodies.

c. Solid and hazardous wastes: Diseases are spread by uncollected garbage and blocked drains; the health risks from hazardous wastes are typically more localized, but often acute. Wastes affect productivity through the pollution of groundwater resources.

d. Soil degradation: Depleted soils increase the risks of malnutrition for farmers. Productivity losses on tropical soils are estimated to be in the range of 0.5-1.5 per cent of GNP, while secondary productivity losses are due to siltation of reservoirs, transportation channels and other hydrologic investments.

e. Deforestation: Death and disease can result from the localized flooding caused by deforestation. Loss of sustainable logging potential and of erosion prevention, watershed stability and carbon sequestration provided by forests are among the productivity impacts of deforestation.

f. Loss of biodiversity: The extinction of plant and animal species will potentially affect the development of new drugs; it will reduce ecosystem adaptability and lead to the loss of genetic resources.

g. Atmospheric changes: Ozone depletion is responsible for perhaps 300,000 additional cases of skin cancer a year and 1.7 million cases of cataracts. Global warming may lead to increase in the risk of climatic natural disasters. Productivity impacts may include sea-rise damage to coastal investments, regional changes in agricultural productivity and disruption of the marine food chain.

Conclusion: The impact of Ecological degradation can be devastating on the social, economic, and environmental systems of a country or region as well as the global ecosystem. Ecological degradation do not recognise man-made borders, and threaten the legacy left to future generations of a clean and supportive environment. Because of the interdependency of earth ecosystems international co-operation is paramount to prevent, and when disaster strikes, respond to relieve quickly and effectively the effects of environmental disasters. Thus, Governments, International organizations and communities must work together – at all levels – to lessen the risks associated with environmental degradation and its contributing factors, such as climate change, and ensure that vulnerable people are prepared to survive and adapt. At the same time, companies, organizations and individuals must also ensure that their work is environmentally friendly and sustainable.

Tribal economy is an area of research that is directed at studying various aspects of the tribal economy, viz. nature of tribal poverty, livelihood practices, impact of development schemes, dynamics of the tribal economy, access to financial services, marketing linkages, etc. Any tribal or primitive economy, including how all the great civilizations started, was communal and usually had barter or a primitive money system. Barter is simply swapping; a goose for a knife, a bag of corn for a sandal, etc.Primitive money would be like wampum used by American Indians or Stone money used by the tribesmen of Yap island. The trouble with the barter system is that you might not have what the other fellow wants. He wants a donkey for his knives but you don’t have a donkey, and so on and so forth. Primitive money, like wampum, might not be universally accepted by all the Indian tribes plus it is clumsy to carry. So tribal economy was simple. Hunter/gatherers divided their labor: women gathered and men hunted, the barter system was used or primitive money (pretty shells etc. In an isolated area there’s no requirement for employment, jobs or industry. They live off the land or migrate with the change in weather or game. They may not have TV’s radios and cars but you don’t miss what you don’t know about. I’ve seen many happy people where they had no contact with the outside world. Advancement in Technology has no guarantees of happiness and carries a lot of problems. How is someone with enough food, clothing and education to survive within their society considered to be in poverty. They only become poor when they require money to pay for technology and new toys. A country like Ethiopia has Tribal economies because their resources come from outside the tribe. Is their famine not due to improper agriculture and distribution methods because someone makes money by exploiting the resources?

The causes and patterns of violence and terrorism in India include:

Political causes: This is seen essentially in Assam and Tripura. The political factors that led to insurgency-cum-terrorism included the failure of the government to control large-scale illegal immigration of Muslims from Bangladesh, to fulfill the demand of economic benefits for the sons and daughters of the soil, etc.

Economic causes: Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Bihar are prime examples. The economic factors include the absence of land reforms, rural unemployment, exploitation of landless labourers by land owners, etc. These economic grievances and perceptions of gross social injustice have given rise to ideological terrorist groups such as the various Marxist/Maoist groups operating under different names.

Ethnic causes: Mainly seen in Nagaland, Mizoram and Manipur due to feelings of ethnic separateness.

Religious causes: Punjab before 1995 and in J&K since 1989.In Punjab, some Sikh elements belonging to different organizations took to terrorism to demand the creation of an independent state called Khalistan for the Sikhs. In J&K, Muslims belonging to different organizations took to terrorism for conflicting objectives. Some, such as the Jammu & Kashmir Liberation Front, want independence for the state, including all the territory presently part of India, Pakistan and China. Others, such as the Hizbul Mujahideen , want India’s J&K state to be merged with Pakistan. While those who want independence project their struggle as a separatist one, those wanting a merger with Pakistan project it as a religious struggle.

There have also been sporadic acts of religious terrorism in other parts of India. These are either due to feelings of anger amongst sections of the Muslim youth over the government’s perceived failure to safeguard their lives and interests or due to Pakistan’s attempts to cause religious polarization.

The maximum number of terrorist incidents and deaths of innocent civilians have occurred due to religious terrorism. While the intensity of the violence caused by terrorism of a non-religious nature can be rated as low or medium, that of religious terrorism has been high or very high. It has involved the indiscriminate use of sophisticated Improvised Explosive Devices, suicide bombers, the killing of civilians belonging to the majority community with hand-held weapons and resorting to methods such as hijacking, hostage-taking, blowing up of aircraft through IEDs, etc. Certain distinctions between the modus operandi and concepts/beliefs of religious and non-religious terrorist groups need to be underlined, namely:

Non-religious terrorist groups in India do not believe in suicide terrorism, but the LTTE does. Of the religious terrorist groups, the Sikhs did not believe in suicide terrorism. The indigenous terrorist groups in J&K do not believe in suicide terrorism either; it is a unique characteristic of Pakistan’s pan-Islamic jihadi groups operating in J&K and other parts of India. They too did not believe in suicide terrorism before 1998; in fact, there was no suicide terrorism in J&K before 1999. They started resorting to it only after they joined Osama bin Laden’s International Islamic Front in 1998. Since then, there have been 46 incidents of suicide terrorism, of which 44 were carried out by bin Laden’s Pakistani supporters belonging to these organizations.

Non-religious terrorist groups in India have not resorted to hijacking and blowing up of aircraft. Of the religious terrorists, the Sikh groups were responsible for five hijackings, the indigenous JKLF for one and the Pakistani jihadi group, the Harkat-ul-Mujahideen (which is a member of the IIF), for one. The Babbar Khalsa, a Sikh terrorist group, blew up Air India’s Kanishka aircraft off the Irish coast on June 23, 1985, killing nearly 200 passengers and made an unsuccessful attempt the same day to blow up another Air India plane at Tokyo. The IED there exploded prematurely on the ground. The Kashmiri and the Pakistani jihadi groups have not tried to blow up any passenger plane while on flight. However, the JKLF had blown up an Indian Airlines aircraft, which it had hijacked to Lahore in 1971, after asking the passengers and crew to disembark.

All terrorist groups — religious as well as non-religious — have resorted to kidnapping hostages for ransom and for achieving other demands. The non-religious terrorist groups have targeted only Indians, whereas the religious terrorist groups target Indians as well as foreigners. The Khalistan Commando Force, a Sikh terrorist group, kidnapped a Romanian diplomat in New Delhi in 1991. The JKLF kidnapped some Israeli tourists in J&K in 1992. HUM, under the name Al Faran, kidnapped five Western tourists in 1995 and is believed to have killed four of them. An American managed to escape. Sheikh Omar, presently on trial for the kidnap and murder of American journalist Daniel Pearl in Karachi in January last year, had earlier kidnapped some Western tourists near Delhi. They were subsequently freed by the police.

Non-religious terrorist groups in India have not carried out any act of terrorism outside Indian Territory. Of the religious terrorist groups, a Sikh organization blew up an Air India plane off the Irish coast and unsuccessfully tried to blow up another plane at Tokyo the same day, plotted to kill then prime minister Rajiv Gandhi during his visit to the US in June 1985 (the plot was foiled by the Federal Bureau of Investigation), attacked the Indian ambassador in Bucharest, Romania, in October 1991, and carried out a number of attacks on pro-government members of the Sikh Diaspora abroad. The JKLF kidnapped and killed an Indian diplomat in Birmingham, England 1984. In the 1970s, the Anand Marg had indulged in acts of terrorism in foreign countries.

None of the non-religious terrorist groups advocate the acquisition and use of Weapons of Mass Destruction. Of the religious groups, the Sikh and the indigenous Kashmiri terrorist groups did/do not advocate the acquisition and use of WMD. However, the Pakistani pan-Islamic groups, which are members of the IIF and which operate in J&K, support bin Laden’s advocacy of the right and religious obligation of Muslims to acquire and use WMD to protect their religion, if necessary.

The Sikh terrorist groups did not cite their holy book as justification for their acts of terrorism, but the indigenous Kashmiri groups as well as the Pakistani jihadi groups operating in India cite the holy Koran as justification for their jihad against the government of India and the Hindus.

The Sikh and the indigenous Kashmiri groups projected/project their objective as confined to their respective state, but the Pakistani pan-Islamic terrorist groups project their aim as extending to the whole of South Asia — namely the ‘liberation’ of Muslims in India and the ultimate formation of an Islamic Caliphate consisting of the ‘Muslim homelands’ of India and Sri Lanka, Pakistan and Bangladesh.

The Sikh terrorist groups demanded an independent nation on the ground that Sikhs constituted a separate community and could not progress as fast as they wanted to in a Hindu-dominated country. They did not deride Hinduism and other non-Sikh religions. Nor did they call for the eradication of Hindu influences from their religion. The indigenous Kashmiri organisations, too, follow a similar policy. But the Pakistani pan-Islamic jihadi organizations ridicule and condemn Hinduism and other religions and call for the eradication of what they describe as the corrupting influence of Hinduism on Islam as practiced in South Asia.

The Sikh and indigenous Kashmiri terrorist organizations believed/believe in Western-style parliamentary democracy. The Pakistani jihadi organizations project Western-style parliamentary democracy as anti-Islam since it believes sovereignty vests in people and not in God.

Religious as well as non-religious terrorist groups have external links with like-minded terrorist groups in other countries. Examples: The link between the Marxist groups of India with Maoist groups of Nepal, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh; the link between the indigenous Kashmiri organizations with the religious, fundamentalist and jihadi organizations of Pakistan; the link between organizations such as the Students Islamic Movement of India with jihadi elements in Pakistan and Saudi Arabia; and the link between the Pakistani pan-Islamic jihadi organizations operating in India with bin Laden’s Al Qaeda and the Taliban

The problem of child labour continues to pose a challenge before the nation.  Government has been taking various pro-active measures to tackle this problem. However, considering the magnitude and extent of the problem and that it is essentially a socio-economic problem inextricably linked to poverty and illiteracy, it requires concerted efforts from all sections of the society to make a dent in the problem.

Way back in 1979, Government formed the first committee called Gurupadswamy Committee to study the issue of child labour and to suggest measures to tackle it. The Committee examined the problem in detail and made some far-reaching recommendations. It observed that as long as poverty continued, it would be difficult to totally eliminate child labour and hence, any attempt to abolish it through legal recourse would not be a practical proposition. The Committee felt that in the circumstances, the only alternative left was to ban child labour in hazardous areas and to regulate and ameliorate the conditions of work in other areas. It recommended that a multiple policy approach was required in dealing with the problems of working children.

Based on the recommendations of Gurupadaswamy Committee, the Child Labour (Prohibition & Regulation) Act was enacted in 1986. The Act prohibits employment of children in certain specified hazardous occupations and processes and regulates the working conditions in others.  The list of hazardous occupations and processes is progressively being expanded on the recommendation of Child Labour Technical Advisory Committee constituted under the Act.

In consonance with the above approach, a National Policy on Child Labour was formulated in 1987. The Policy seeks to adopt a gradual & sequential approach with a focus on rehabilitation of children working in hazardous occupations & processes in the first instance. The Action Plan outlined in the Policy for tackling this problem is as follows:

Legislative Action Plan for strict enforcement of Child Labour Act and other labour laws to ensure that children are not employed in hazardous employments, and that the working conditions of children working in non-hazardous areas are regulated in accordance with the provisions of the Child Labour Act. It also entails further identification of additional occupations and processes, which are detrimental to the health and safety of the children.

Focusing of General Developmental Programmes for Benefiting Child Labour -         As poverty is the root cause of child labour, the action plan emphasizes the need to cover these children and their families also under various poverty alleviation and employment generation schemes of the Government.

Project Based Plan of Action envisages starting of projects in areas of high concentration of child labour. Pursuant to this, in 1988, the National Child Labour Project (NCLP) Scheme was launched in 9 districts of high child labour endemicity in the country. The Scheme envisages running of special schools for child labour withdrawn from work. In the special schools, these children are provided formal/non-formal education along with vocational training, a stipend of Rs.100 per month, supplementary nutrition and regular health checkups so as to prepare them to join regular mainstream schools. Under the Scheme, funds are given to the District Collectors for running special schools for child labour. Most of these schools are run by the NGOs in the district.

Government has accordingly been taking proactive steps to tackle this problem through strict enforcement of legislative provisions along with simultaneous rehabilitative measures. State Governments, which are the appropriate implementing authorities, have been conducting regular inspections and raids to detect cases of violations. Since poverty is the root cause of this problem, and enforcement alone cannot help solve it, Government has been laying a lot of emphasis on the rehabilitation of these children and on improving the economic conditions of their families.  The coverage of the NCLP Scheme has increased from 12 districts in 1988 to 100 districts in the 9th Plan to 250 districts during the 10th Plan.

Strategy for the elimination of child labour under the 10th Plan

An evaluation of the Scheme was carried out by independent agencies in coordination with V. V. Giri National Labour Institute in 2001. Based on the recommendations of the evaluation and experience of implementing the scheme since 1988, the strategy for implementing the scheme during the 10th Plan was devised. It aimed at greater convergence with the other developmental schemes and bringing qualitative changes in the Scheme. Some of the salient points of the 10th Plan Strategy are as follows: Focused and reinforced action to eliminate child labour in the hazardous occupations by the end of the Plan period. Expansion of National Child Labour Projects to additional 150 districts. Linking the child labour elimination efforts with the Scheme of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan of Ministry of Human Resource Development to ensure that children in the age group of 5-8 years get directly admitted to regular schools and that the older working children are mainstreamed to the formal education system through special schools functioning under the NCLP Scheme. Convergence with other Schemes of the Departments of Education, Rural Development, Health and Women and Child Development for the ultimate attainment of the objective in a time bound manner.

The Government and the Ministry of Labour & Employment in particular, are rather serious in their efforts to fight and succeed in this direction. The number of districts covered under the NCLP Scheme has been increased from 100 to 250, as mentioned above in this note. In addition, 21 districts have been covered under INDUS, a similar Scheme for rehabilitation of child labour in cooperation with US Department of Labour. Implementation of this Project was recently reviewed during the visit of Mr. Steven Law, Deputy Secretary of State, from the USA. For the Districts not covered under these two Schemes, Government is also providing funds directly to the NGOs under the Ministry’s Grants-in-aid Scheme for running Special Schools for rehabilitation of child labour, thereby providing for a greater role and cooperation of the civil society in combating this menace.

Elimination of child labour is the single largest programme in this Ministry’s activities. Apart from a major increase in the number of districts covered under the scheme, the priority of the Government in this direction is evident in the quantum jump in budgetary allocation during the 10th Plan. Government has allocated Rs. 602 crores for the Scheme during the 10th Plan, as against an expenditure of Rs. 178 crores in the 9th Plan. The resources set aside for combating this evil in the Ministry is around 50 per cent of its total annual budget.

The implementation of NCLP and INDUS Schemes is being closely monitored through periodical reports, frequent visits and meetings with the District and State Government officials. The Government’s commitment to achieve tangible results in this direction in a time bound manner is also evident from the fact that in the recent Regional Level Conferences of District Collectors held in Hyderabad, Pune, Mussoorie and Kolkata district-wise review of the Scheme was conducted at the level of Secretary. These Conferences provided an excellent opportunity to have one-to-one interaction with the Collectors, who play a pivotal role in the implementation of these Schemes in the District. Besides, these Conferences also helped in a big way in early operationalisation of Scheme in the newly selected 150 districts. The Government is committed to eliminate child labour in all its forms and is moving in this direction in a targeted manner. The multipronged strategy being followed by the Government to achieve this objective also found its echo during the recent discussions held in the Parliament on the Private Member’s Bill tabled by Shri Iqbal Ahmed Saradgi. It was unanimously recognized therein that the problem of child labour, being inextricably linked with poverty and illiteracy, cannot be solved by legislation alone, and that a holistic, multi-pronged and concerted effort to tackle this problem will bring in the desired results.

Family has always been at the base of urban society. Most of the Urban take pride in the essence of family life. However the recent changes in the socio-political and economic arena have had a significant impact on individuals and families. India is a country that truly befits the phrase” unity in diversity” with so many religions, languages, cultures, castes and yet the oneness that binds them together. Each family unit in India is influenced by his or her cultures and values. Urban joint family system was quite prevalent a few years back. However, with western influences, more and more people are now willing to stay as a nuclear family especially in urban areas. Traditional roles in family structure are now changing but even modern and educated families imbibe the intrinsic values of family life in India.

Family ties are very important to Urban. Arranged marriages within the caste system are still very much prevalent all over the country. The traditional role of a man to support the family economically and the traditional role of a woman to look after the domestic chores can be seen in rural areas. Working women which are now common in urban areas are still expected to fulfill their domestic responsibilities.

The Urban family is being exposed to fast paced lifestyles that are taxing considering the structure of family as a social institution. Urban families and their mental set up are not well prepared to confront the competitive and challenging world of today. Most young Urban face a dilemma when exposed to a new pattern of living and a different set of values as against those which were promoted by their parents and grandparents.

Most Urban families are conservative and sons are always more preferred than daughters as sons normally earn money for the family and support their parents during their old age. Urban family life has its own merits and demerits. With a family, there is emotional security, co-operation, values etc.

However individual freedom might get restrained. Sharing and caring is another important aspect that urban joint families believe in. An Urban family typically consists of a man, his wife, their children, the man’s parents and unmarried sisters, if any. The man mostly make his parents live with him and looks after them. The family system is given a lot of importance in India and has worked more often than not.

Most Urban marriages are arranged and within the community. Normally, the parents of the prospective spouses get together either through a common relative or through a matchmaker. Most Urban get together with their family and celebrate urban festivals like diwali, holi, navratri etc with great joy.

The rigid Urban family system in imbibed in the culture of India and though changes are taking place, it will require a very long period of time for Urbans to change their living patterns.

Change in social structure in insidious ways slowly creeps its way up, accompanied by a lot of evidence to the contrary. And for ever, whatever we say about Indian women, the opposite will also be true. There will be positive empowerment as a result of panchayat reservations and change in inheritance laws and gender-friendly police stations, but it may take several generations before women actually ride on these newly built roads.  It is true that women are getting more of a say in homes and families and their own lives than they have had before. They are getting more educated, more entrepreneurial, and gutsier about narrowing the gap between them and authority figures in their lives — more so spouses and in-laws than parents. This is going to keep increasing because once the worm turns, there is no stopping it. So, let’s try and separate the signal of change from the noise, and examine how urban women’s lives are changing in India and understand what is driving this change. At the least, we will be able to market to them better, and at best to help them evolve further. While it is true, by women’s own admissions, that mothers-in-law are more tolerant and husbands less repressive, and she has equal voting rights on family issues, it isn’t social evolution that is driving this change as much as the state of the economy. In other words, we have God (or Goddess?) EMI or equated monthly installment to thank for driving this change. The concept of family has changed from a predominantly social unit to an economic unit. The new truth about Indian marriages is the old truth — that its business model is around a pragmatic ‘life business’ partnership rather than around romance. Ask any young man, or woman, and you will know. Taking a loan for whatever purpose is the new Indian way of life. The EMI is here to stay. And everyone has to do whatever they can in the family to enable family earnings to happen, so that the quality of living can be improved or the house can be owned or made livable. What is the role of the woman in this? In the lower social class, she must either earn or be a co-contributor or she must look after the housework and the children of the extended family so that the men and the women who are working outside the home can maximize their earnings.

In the middle and upper class households, she must take care of all home and ‘outdoor work’ of the family so that she facilitates and insulates the man who is better qualified and who can earn big bucks to continue to do so with no distraction.

Social problems, also called social issues, affect every society, great and small. Even in relatively isolated, sparsely populated areas, a group will encounter social problems. Part of this is due to the fact that any members of a society living close enough together will have conflicts. It’s virtually impossible to avoid them, and even people who live together in the same house don’t always get along seamlessly. On the whole though, when social problems are mentioned they tend to refer to the problems that affect people living together in a society. The list of social problems is huge and not identical from area to area. In the US, some predominant social issues include the growing divide between rich and poor, domestic violence, unemployment, pollution, urban decay, racism and sexism, and many others. Sometimes social issues arise when people hold very different opinions about how to handle certain situations like unplanned pregnancy. While some people might view abortion as the solution to this problem, other members of the society remain strongly opposed to its use. In itself, strong disagreements on how to solve problems create divides in social groups. Other issues that may be considered social problems aren’t that common in the US and other industrialized countries, but they are huge problems in developing ones. The issues of massive poverty, food shortages, lack of basic hygiene, spread of incurable diseases, ethnic cleansing, and lack of education inhibit the development of society. Moreover, these problems are related to each other and it can seem hard to address one without addressing all of them. It would be easy to assume that a social problem only affects the people whom it directly touches, but this is not the case. Easy spread of disease for instance may tamper with the society at large, and it’s easy to see how this has operated in certain areas of Africa. The spread of AIDs for instance has created more social problems because it is costly, it is a danger to all members of society, and it leaves many children without parents. HIV/AIDs isn’t a single problem but a complex cause of numerous ones. Similarly, unemployment in America doesn’t just affect those unemployed but affects the whole economy. It’s also important to understand that social problems within a society affect its interaction with other societies, which may lead to global problems or issues. How another nation deals with the problems of a developing nation may affect its relationship with that nation and the rest of the world for years to come. Though the United States was a strong supporter of the need to develop a Jewish State in Israel, its support has come at a cost of its relationship with many Arabic nations. Additionally, countries that allow multiple political parties and free expression of speech have yet another issue when it comes to tackling some of the problems that plague its society. This is diversity of solutions, which may mean that the country cannot commit to a single way to solve an issue, because there are too many ideas operating on how to solve it. Any proposed solution to something that affects society is likely to make some people unhappy, and this discontent can promote discord. On the other hand, in countries where the government operates independently of the people and where free speech or exchange of ideas is discouraged, there may not be enough ideas to solve issues, and governments may persist in trying to solve them in wrongheaded or ineffective ways. The earliest approach to the study of social disorganization is that of the social problems. The problems were discussed without any particular sociological frame of reference both the facts and suggested reform programmes being taken from the fields in which the problems were found. Each problem was considered in complete isolation from others. It was assumed that society could progress if it would attack the mal-adjustment which delayed human advancement. Thus the social problems were the diseases of society which threatened the welfare of the group. This is not a scientific approach because social problems in one period of history are not so considered in another. Besides some of the so called social problems are not generally accepted as like that. Therefore this approach is called evangelistic one. For all its imperfections and inadequacies the social problem approach contributed to the understanding of social disorganization paving the way for a more scientific analysis. The second approach to the study of social disorganization is the bio Psychological. It is the result of the development of the sciences; biology and psychology. The beginnings of this approach can be traced in the formulation of racial theories by Gobineau. He and his followers declared the theory that the decay of all societies is the result of racial intermixing. This is because that the races are not equal in capacity. The eugenists were of the view that there are biological differences not only between races but between individuals within the same race. Therefore society would take drastic steps to prevent conception among the mentally unfit. This is only way open to solve social problems and for the prevention of social disorganization. This approach helps us to know that the disorganization of society is the direct result of deficiencies in the biological make-up passed on from generation through heredity. The third approach is geographical. Geographical factors such as land, water, rainfall, climate and soil decide the superiority of a given culture or the backwardness of people. The forms of social disorganization which are explained in terms of geographical factors are crime, cultural retardation, illiteracy, suicide, divorce and insanity. Geography imposes limitation to man’s ingenuity but it does not determine the patterns of social adjustment. The fourth approach to the study of social disorganization is cultural because it explains social problems in terms of cultural processes. Thus the different forms of social-organization shows institutional malfunction. The fifth approach is the cultural lag frame of reference. The term cultural lag explained by Ogburn is based upon the distinction between material and non-material culture. Rapid changes takes place in the material culture whereas slow changes in non-material culture. Changes in material culture necessitate related changes in non-material culture. According to this school the disorganization of the modern family is the result of a lag in the continued functioning of and failure to develop suitable substitutes for the old folkways and mores governing family relations. Cultural anthropologists attempt to broaden the concept cultural lag to include lack of harmonious functioning between two associated cultural traits. Thomas and Znaniecki in their Polish Peasant talk of the cultural approach. This may be called the culture conflict approach. According to them the social disorganization of the immigrant community is the result of conflict between the cultures of the old and the new worlds in which the control of the primary group breaks down.

The British ruled India to promote their own interests. In doing so they often subordinate Indian welfare to British gain. The Indians realized gradually that their interests were being sacrificed to those of British interests. This clash of interests was the root cause of the rise of the nationalist movement. Eventually the peasants, the artisans and the workers discovered that they had no political rights and virtually nothing was being done for their intellectual and cultural development. The educated Indians discovered that economic exploitation by Britain was only increasing India’s poverty. Thus the anti-imperialist movement gradually arose and developed in India. Nationalist sentiments grew up among the general people on account of the following major factors. And it did not take even much time. The factors were as follows.

The British Imperialist Policy

After the Revolt of 1857 the British Government followed a policy of Divide and Rule. First, it seeks the support of the Zamindars, rulers of Princely states and other conservative sections of Indian society. The English educated class considered itself the true representative of the Indian people. It, therefore, wanted more representation in the Legislative Councils and the same rights in public that the British nationals enjoyed in public services. The British rulers regarded India as a British colony. They wished to reserve the right of administration for themselves. Ripon wanted the educated class to support British rule in India while Lytton sought the support of the conservative elements in society. Thus the imperialist policy of the government based on the principle of `Divide and Rule` of Indians led to the rise of anti-imperialist feelings in India.

English Education

Educated young men who know English were informed about the struggle of the people of Italy, and Greece against foreign domination in their countries. They got inspiration from the revolutions in France and America. When a uniform system of education was introduced in India it helped to evolve a common goal and uniform approach to the political leaders of the different regions. Although the English educated class was a minority of the whole population of India but its influence and leadership could mould public opinion as the newspapers, educational institutions and the advocates of the legal courts were all greatly influenced by the opinion of this group. English education up to the end of the 19th century was confined to the upper and middle classes of society. Their views had become popular. Thus English education helped in lessening the traditional obstacles in the progress of the country. Patriotism and the feeling for liberty were not the gifts of English education. They pervaded the whole country even before English education was introduced. But English education helped evolving a new direction in the form of establishing a parliamentary form of government, which had been in existence in England long before its introduction in India.

The Press

The newspapers contributed a good deal to the awakening of national consciousness in India. After the Revolt of 1857 the government tried to control the newspapers. The government prepared a `Report on Native Newspapers`. But the number of newspapers continued to increase and they became a very good medium of spreading ideas about political rights among the common people. Both in Bengal and Maharashtra these newspapers criticized the government policies. The government tried to put restrictions on these newspapers as they brought various problems such as injustice of the administration, racial discrimination, economic exploitation of Indians, etc. to the notice of the people. They expressed the opinion that the British rule in India was resulting in the moral, economic and intellectual degeneration of Indians. In 1878 Lytton got Vernacular Press Act passed to check the growing criticism of government measures. But the press and the newspapers became more active after 1878 and the people protested against this measure by organizing meetings and submitting memoranda to the government and the members of British Parliament.

Literature

Nationalist literature in the form of novels, essays and patriotic poetry also played an important role in arousing national consciousness. For example, the novel Ananda math by Bankim Chandra Chatterji was a source of great inspiration to all the nationalist leaders. The national song `Vandematram` was a great awakening for the society. Other prominent nationalist writers of the period were Rabindranath Tagore in Bengali, Vishnu Shastri Chiplukar in Marathi, Subramanya Bharati in Tamil, and Baratendu Harish Chandra in Hindi.

Political Associations

As early as 1830 the Zamindars of Bengal organized themselves into a Landholder`s Society. They protested against the Act that empowered government to take in its possession all rent-free lands. Soon after, three political associations namely British Indian Association in Calcutta (1851) Madras Native Association in Madras (1852) and Bombay Association in Bombay (1852) were established. These associations submitted memoranda to the government on contemporary political problems. But the government did not accept any of the suggestions of these Associations. In 1876 Surendranath Banerjee and Anand Mohan Bose organized the Indian Association. In Western India Poona Sarvajanik Sabha was organized in 1870. It contributed a good deal in creating national consciousness among the people in Maharashtra. As early as 1866 the East India Association was organized in London. It tried to let the people of England and the members of British Parliament know about the problems of Indians.

Poverty of India

All the farmers, artisans, craftsmen and later the factory workers were reduced to poverty on account of the economic policies of the British Government in India. Dadabhai Naoraji proved how British Rule had resulted in the `Drain of Wealth` from India to Britain and according to him this was the real cause of poverty of India. It was the result of Free Trade Policy followed by the British Government that failed to prove the interest Of Indian artisans and craftsmen.

 Commentators often talk of the long decline of industry in the British economy. In simple terms this is what we mean by de-industrialization – a fall in the contribution made by the manufacturing sector to national output, employment and income. We can consider manufacturing as a whole, or focus on individual industries such as steel and clothing and textiles De-industrialization is a long-term process of structural change in an economy – leading to a change in the composition of national output, and important alterations to the structure of our labour market. There is a number of different ways of measuring the extent to which our manufacturing sector is experiencing de-industrialization:

Its impact on the Indian Economy

The economic condition of India in the 19th century started becoming worse due to several polices of the British government. The Indian manufacturing sector was sometimes sharply disrupted sue to the import of machine made foreign goods. While analyzing the economic impact of British rule and consequent poverty, Indian nationalists has quite convincingly argued that British rule has de-industrialized India. However, recent researches in modern economic history of India after independence has challenged this widely accepted hypothesis on many grounds. To reach at final analysis it is imperative to go through all major views of the scholars and sources of information of different parts of 19th century India.

Drain of wealth the systematic policy of ferrying the economic resources of India to Britain. The officials of the British I government were paid out of the Indian exchequer money went out of India. There was a heavy tax t on the Indian people because large sums had to b annually as interest on loans contracted by the Gove~ of India. It was first time in India’s history that the balance of trade t unfavorable towards India.

De-industrialization The British caused 1 Duos harm to the traditional handicraft industry decayed beyond recovery. Heavy customs dutiE imposed on Indian goods. The British officials! Preference for European goods. This provided an. to the demand for European goods and contribute decline of Indian handicrafts. The availability of n made goods in abundance at a comparatively low H greatly contributed to the decline of Indian handicri failure of the British Government to offer any protE indigenous industry also contributed to the de Indian handicrafts because they could not compt machine-made goods produced in bulk, and Consequently cheaper. With the subjugation of Indian princely 51 patronage to the handicraft industry ceased to exist.

Ruralisation Indian economy tended to more and more agricultural with the disintegration traditional industries. The increase in the number 01 in agriculture. Did not mean increase in agricultural, but impoverishment of the rural masses; then industrial alternative. This accounted for the famines and increasing poverty in the 19th and quarter of the 20^th century. India merely became of raw material for industrial Britain.

Miller in 1952 created a closed system of laboratory glassware, except for tungsten electrodes that provided electric sparks, which mimicked lightening. He added together methane, ammonia, water, and hydrogen, subjected the mixture to a high-frequency spark for a week, and produced milligram quantities of glycine, alanine, and other amino acids. (6,7) Amino acids are building blocks that may hook together to form the long and complex molecules of animal and plant life. Miller lectured in 1961, “It appears likely that reactive organic compounds were formed by electric discharges and by ultraviolet light in the atmosphere of the primitive earth. These compounds were carried on by the rains and reacted in the ocean to give amino acids and other complex organic compounds. It is possible that a significant fraction of the carbon on the surface of the earth was in the form of organic compounds in the oceans. Reactions in this mixture would give a great many of the compounds that are components of present living organisms.  “While amino acids are easily synthesized in the laboratory, the synthesis reported here is the first one carried out under conditions that might reasonably be present on the primitive earth. The synthesis of amino acids is not the synthesis of life, nor is it a synthesis of proteins. However, it represents a step toward our understanding of how live matter may have arisen on earth.” Miller was not the first scientist to attempt to create an organic compound from inorganic molecules. In the 1820s, German physician-chemist Frederich Woeller (1800-1882) used ammonium cyanate to synthesize urea, a biological compound secreted by the kidneys. Woeller’s experiment was the first example of the reaction of inorganic compounds to form a biological compound. Today, the distinction between organic (of biological origin, e.g., urea, amino acids) and inorganic (of non-biological origin, e.g., carbon monoxide, graphite) is nebulous.

 Impediments to the growth of science in medieval India in Mathematics: The earliest traces of mathematical knowledge in the Indian subcontinent appear with the Indus Valley Civilization (c. 4th millennium BC ~ c. 3rd millennium BC). The people of this civilization made bricks whose dimensions were in the proportion 4:2:1, considered favorable for the stability of a brick structure.[25] They also tried to standardize measurement of length to a high degree of accuracy. They designed a ruler—the Mohenjo-daro ruler—whose unit of length (approximately 1.32 inches or 3.4 centimeters) was divided into ten equal parts. Bricks manufactured in ancient Mohenjo-daro often had dimensions that were integral multiples of this unit of length. Indian astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata (476-550), in his Aryabhatiya (499) introduced a number of trigonometric functions (including sine, versine, cosine and inverse sine), trigonometric tables, and techniques and algorithms of algebra. In 628 AD, Brahmagupta suggested that gravity was a force of attraction. He also lucidly explained the use of zero as both a placeholder and a decimal digit, along with the Hindu-Arabic numeral system now used universally throughout the world. Arabic translations of the two astronomers’ texts were soon available in the Islamic world, introducing what would become Arabic numerals to the Islamic World by the 9th century. During the 14th-16th centuries, the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics made significant advances in astronomy and especially mathematics, including fields such as trigonometry and analysis. In particular, Madhava of Sangamagrama is considered the “founder of mathematical analysis”.

Astronomy: The first textual mention of astronomical concepts comes from the Vedas, religious literature of India. According to Sarma (2008): “One finds in the Rigveda intelligent speculations about the genesis of the universe from nonexistence, the configuration of the universe, the spherical self-supporting earth, and the year of 360 days divided into 12 equal parts of 30 days each with a periodical intercalary month. The first 12 chapters of the Siddhartha Shiromani, written by Bhāskara in the 12th century, cover topics such as: mean longitudes of the planets; true longitudes of the planets; the three problems of diurnal rotation; syzygies; lunar eclipses; solar eclipses; latitudes of the planets; risings and settings; the moon’s crescent; conjunctions of the planets with each other; conjunctions of the planets with the fixed stars; and the patas of the sun and moon. The 13 chapters of the second part cover the nature of the sphere, as well as significant astronomical and trigonometric calculations based on it.

Linguistics: Some of the earliest linguistic activities can be found in Iron Age India (1st. millennium BC) with the analysis of Sanskrit for the purpose of the correct recitation and interpretation of Vedic texts. The most notable grammarian of Sanskrit was Pāṇini (c. 520 – 460 BC), who’s grammar formulates close to 4,000 rules which together form a compact generative grammar of Sanskrit. Inherent in his analytic approach are the concepts of the phoneme, the morpheme and the root.

Medicine: Findings from Neolithic graveyards in what is now Pakistan show evidence of proto-dentistry among an early farming culture.Ayurveda is a system of traditional medicine that originated in ancient India before 2500 BC, and is now practiced as a form of alternative medicine in other parts of the world. Its most famous text is the Suśrutasamhitā of Suśruta, which is notable for describing procedures on various forms of surgery, including rhinoplasty, the repair of torn ear lobes, perineal lithotomy, cataract surgery, and several other excisions and other surgical procedures.

The advances in the areas of chemistry in India during Iron Age:

The level of chemical knowledge and practices in the new ordered society is reflected in the pottery, iron tools and glass objects found at various Iron Age sites. The iron tools that you indicate a fairly advanced knowledge of iron smelting. By the fifth or the’ fourth century B.C., the Indian metalworkers had attained a high degree of perfection in the techniques of producing iron and steel. Glass objects unearthed in over 30 sites indicate that production of glass came to be known only towards the end of this period (Fig. 3.6). Ceramic bowls, dishes, lids and craniates jars (‘handis’) dated from about the sixth century B.C. to the second century B.C. were also found in these sites. Fermentation methods, dyeing techniques, the preparation and use of a number of chemicals and colour pigments were well known. Sketches of some ancient iron objects found at various sites Fig. 3.6: Sketches of some ancient glass such as Taxila, Hastinapur. Ujjain and Sisupalgarh: I) ringed chain; specimens from a) Taxila (6th century 2) lower portion of an iron axe: 3) miniature bell; 4) staple from a B.C.-1st century A.D.): I) ear-reel; 2) looped head: 5) spearhead; 6) slightly convex iron disc with seal; 3-5 beads; 6) bangle piece; 7) wine perforation; 7) spike of square section; door ring; 9) circular flask (the thicker line was the piece that piece of iron with a nail riveted into it; 10) fragment of a chain. was found); b) Arikamedu (1^st century-2nd century A.D.): 8). 10) Roman glass bowls; 9) millefiori glass.

The advances in the areas of Botany in India during Iron Age:

In the Bronze and the Iron Ages, agriculture became the principal mode of production of man in all lands. It is, thus, not surprising that in India, botany and elementary plant physiology developed with the advances made in agriculture. The developments in medicine also helped these sciences. For example, in Rigvedic hymns, Atharvaveda, Taittiriya Samhita etc., scattered references are made to the following:

i) Different parts of the plant such as mula (root), tula (shoot), kanda (stem), valsa (twigs) etc.

ii) Classification of plants such as osadhi (medicinal), valli (climber), guccha (bushy) etc. according to their morphology and use, and

iii) Physiology of plants in terms of what nourishes a plant through addition to the soil, such as cow dung etc.A systematic study of botany, ‘Vrksayurveda’ by Parasara, however, came into being by only about the first century B.C. The treatise formalized a lot of the earlier botanical and medicinal knowledge. We will not go into its details.

The advances in the areas of Zoology in India during Iron Age:

The domestication of animals like horses and elephants and their use in warfare necessitated the study of their anatomy and physiology. A survey of Vedic literature has revealed that more than 260 animals were known at that time. Classification of animals and study of their dietary value had been attempted. Human physiology had also been studied. Post-Vedic literature also contains the names of animals and a vast storehouse of observations on their natural history. These observations may have stimulated the later thoughts and concepts about classification, heredity, embryology etc.

In India there is an estimated 2-5 million people infected with HIV in India today. The most rapid and well-documented spread of infection has occurred in Bombay and the State of Tamilnadu. In Bombay, HIV prevalence has reached 50% in sex workers, 36% in STD patients, and 2.5% in women seen in antenatal clinics. The infection affects both urban and rural areas. In Bombay, seroprevalence rose from 2-3% in patients seen in STD clinics in 1990 to 36% in 1994 and in rural areas 3-4% of some populations have an STD. In India, there are an estimated 1-2 million cases of tuberculosis every year. TB is the most prevalent form of POI (opportunistic infection) in over 60% of AIDS cases. In Bombay alone, 10% of the patients with TB are HIV-positive. Despite being home to the world’s third-largest population suffering from HIV/AIDS, the AIDS prevalence rate in India is lower than in many other countries. In 2007, India’s AIDS prevalence rate stood at approximately 0.30%—the 89th highest in the world^. The spread of HIV in India is primarily restricted to the  southern and north-eastern  regions of the country and India has also been praised for its extensive anti-AIDS campaign. The US$2.5 billion National AIDS Control Plan III was set up by India in 2007 and received support from UNAIDS. The main factors which have contributed to India’s large HIV-infected population are extensive labor migration and low literacy levels in certain rural areas resulting in lack of awareness and gender disparity. The Government of India has also raised concerns about the role of Intravenous drug use and prostitution in spreading AIDS, especially in north-eastern India and certain urban pockets A recent study published in the British medical journal “The Lancet” in (2006) reported an approximately 30% decline in HIV infections among young women aged 15 to 24 years attending prenatal clinics in selected southern states of India from 2000 to 2004 where the epidemic is thought to be concentrated. The authors cautiously attribute observed declines to increased condom use by men who visit commercial sex workers and cite several pieces of corroborating evidence. Some efforts have been made to tailor educational literature to those with low literacy levels, mainly through local libraries as this is the most readily accessible locus of information for interested parties increased awareness regarding the disease and citizen’s related rights is in line with the Universal Declaration on Human Rights.

HIV statistics, 2007

Some areas report an HIV prevalence rate of zero in antenatal clinics. This does not necessarily mean HIV is absent from the area, as some states report the presence of the virus at STD clinics and amongst injecting drug users. In some states and territories the average antenatal HIV prevalence is based on reports from only a small number of clinics.

The genetic strains of HIV which have been uncovered in India have a different origin from those present in Thailand. Also, both HIV-1 and HIV-2 have been detected in India. In a 1991-93 study of clients of a sexually transmitted disease clinic in Bombay, it was found that seroprevalence of HIV in 241 clients was 39%, the 78.5% positive for HIV-1, 6.5% for HIV-2, and 15% for both. Distribution was even for males and females, reflecting heterosexual transmission. HIV-2 has also been detected in other parts of India, and HIV-1 is spreading throughout the country. HIV in children is a sequelae to blood transfusion. The prevalence of HIV in areas where IV drug use is rampant is increasing rapidly and is spreading to the general population. Genetic analysis revealed that the most closely related genetic sequence to the Indian HIV-1 from Bombay occurs in a strain of the virus from South Africa. One subtype of HIV-2 and several subtypes of HIV-1 have been found, with HIV-1 subtype C and HIV-2 subtype a most frequently encountered. An examination of phylogenetic trees shows the relationships among these different strains. The close genetic relationship between isolates of HIV-1 and HIV-2 from patients in different parts of the country reflects the recent introduction of these strains. Thus, India is an ideal site for studying the efficacy of a vaccine designed specifically for a population of highly similar strains (the high similarity among HIV-2 isolates is unique in India). Since HIV-2 strains are diverging at a rate of 1% per year, any such research would have to occur soon.

Operations Manager ensuring that Ambulances are operational on a day to day basis Vehicle Status .Ensuring that Ambulances are manned on a day to day basis, prepare the schedule for the same – Monthly Rooster. Ensuring inventory supplies to the Ambulances on a regular basis -Purchase, Maintenance and Inventory Register and Ensuring collection from the vehicles on an ongoing basis o Ensuring Ambulance maintenance on regular basis. -Maintenance process o Ensuring Ambulances RTO related matters, insurance is up to date o A detailed audit of each ambulance schedule every month. Maintaining Ambulance Forms / Bills o Consent For. If you took a random poll on the street, many people would probably tell you that working in the hospital industry are easy. They might think that the responsibility is low and that the tasks that must be completed are relatively simple. As a result of this, many people wrongly believe that all you need staff to managed hospital industry is a group of warm bodies. In practice, this could not be further from the truth. Quality soundly managed hospital employees have some characteristics that allow them to perform their jobs well. The truth is, not everyone is cut out for the soundly managed hospital industry, whether they are full time or temporary employees.

Five symptoms of Soundly Managed Hospital.

1. Communication-This is one of the first things that you should be on the lookout for. Many soundly managed hospital employee’s deal directly with your guests; without the ability to communicate effectively your guests will not receive proper customer service–crucial in this industry–and will likely be unhappy. Even back of house and support staff must be able to communicate well. Although they might not constantly deal with customers, they might at some point, not to mention that the soundly managed hospital industry is fast paced. Whether cooks need to get food prepared for a catered party of 100 or your maids need to turn over twelve rooms for waiting guests, an inability to communicate will surely lead to disaster.

2. Multi-Tasking- Every position in the soundly managed hospital must be able to do several things simultaneously. This is where those unfamiliar with the industry seem to get confused. Although the tasks might be relatively simple, the ability to work on several things at once and get everything done correctly is a must. Servers must pay attention to multiple guests at the same time; hotel clerks must greet and answer telephones. Without multi-tasking, the job simply does not get done.

3. Attitude- Different personalities tend to excel at different jobs. While a higher strung, aggressive personality might perform exceptionally on the floor of the New York Stock Exchange, those traits will quickly become a problem in the soundly managed hospital industry. You need staff that is able to remain calm and deal with customers and potential problems in a straightforward yet relaxed manner. Without the right personality, your employees will not do well with your guests.

4. Flexibility- This is another crucial trait for quality soundly managed hospital workers. For a temporary agency, it is an absolute must, as our temps will be changing assignments frequently. In the soundly managed hospital industry in general, an employee must be open and adaptable to changes. While doing business, things can happen quickly and employees must be able to react to the changes in order to best serve customers. Without flexibility even the most confident and intelligent people will not be effective workers in the soundly managed hospital industry at any level.

5. Cleanliness: In soundly managed hospital, certain processes such as those related to integrated circuit manufacturing, require conditions of exceptional cleanliness which are achieved by working in clean rooms. Cleanliness is essential to successful electroplating, since molecular layers of oil can prevent adhesion of the coating. The soundly managed hospital has developed specialized techniques for parts cleaning, as well as tests for cleanliness. The most commonly used tests rely on the wetting behavior of a clean hydrophilic metal surface. Cleanliness is also important to vacuum systems to reduce out gassing.

MEETING THE CHALLENGE OF CHANGE

The social, economic, technical and cultural environment in which the firm operates is always changing. The company must keep pace and change accordingly. Similarly, within organization, new types of production technology may be introduced; the existing product lines may be phased out. These imply a change. We are talking here changes. Man by this very nature resists any change. Used to the old system or method of doing a particular job, people perceive change as a threat to their security. Moreover, change implies learning afresh the new methods or processes and most people resist making this extra effort. The marketing department of a television company always complained of the low quality circuit in the black and white TV and held it responsible for its poor sales performance. However, when an improved circuit was introduced, the marketing department tried its best to convince the top management against this change saying that the old circuit was now performing in a satisfactory manner. The real reason however, was that the marketing department would now be under pressure to show results as it would have no scapegoat to blame for its lack of results. The engineers responsible for providing after sales service opposed the new circuit since it meant putting in an effort to learn the new way of serving it. If we take example of phoenix law enforcement security they have successfully handled such changes in their industry. There will always be change. It is the manager’s task to ensure that the change is introduced and incorporated in a smooth manner with the least disturbance and resistance. Sharing information about the impending change, educating the people about the benefits resulting from changes, and building favorable opinion of the key people in the organization by involving them with the change process itself, go a long way in making the manager’s task easy. The ideal way of introducing change is that you, as a manager, simply sow the idea of the proposed change in the minds of a few people, and then let the idea grow and build till the people themselves come round to asking for the change. This is the way the Japanese make decision-by consensus. However, it is not always possible to introduce change by having

Meeting the Challenge of Change

We are talking Role of manager in our previous post. We talked about Sustaining Leadership. Effectiveness, maintaining balance between creativity and conformity and postponing managerial obsolescence. A manager is leader and he is supposed to demonstrate his leadership abilities. Being manager he must play his role as effective leadership. Business manager need to have ability to balance creativity and conformity as part of his role. Today we are going to talk on meeting the challenge of change. We all are aware with the fact that world is changing. Everything changes with the time passes. One of the important tasks which every manager has to perform is that of a change-agent. The social, economic, technical and cultural environment in which the firm operates is always changing. if we talk about teen makeup, Teen Makeup was different before 20 year and its different today. With time changes everything changes. A manager must keep pace with the changes in organization. With time change The Company must keep pace and change accordingly. Similarly, within organization, new types of production technology may be introduced, the existing product lines may be phased out, formal procedures and techniques for planning, and resource allocation, job appraisal, etc. may be introduced. All these imply a change. And man by this very nature resists any change. Used to the old system or method of doing a particular job, people perceive change as a threat to their security. Moreover, change implies learning afresh the new methods or processes and most people resist making this extra effort . Some time changes create conflict within the organization and manager as team leader suppose to handle conflict intelligently. Obsolescence of managerial personnel is a situation where managers cannot keep up with the latest technology or are not as well-qualified as more junior staf

Postponement obsolescence

Postponement obsolescence refers to a situation where technological improvements are not introduced to a product, even though they could be. One possible example is when an auto manufacturer develops a new feature for its line of cars, but chooses not to implement that feature in the production of the least expensive car in its product line.

Technical obsolescence

Technical obsolescence may occur when a new product or technology supersedes the old, and it becomes preferred to utilize the new technology in place of the old. Historical examples of superseding technologies causing obsolescence include higher-quality multimedia DVD over videocassette recorder and the telephone, with audio transmission, over the telegraph’s coded electrical signals. On a smaller scale, particular products may become obsolete due to replacement by a newer version of the product. Many products in the computer industry become obsolete in this manner; for example, Central processing units frequently become obsolete in favor of newer, faster units. Singularly, rapid obsolescence of data formats along with their supporting hardware and software can lead to loss of critical information, a process known as digital obsolescence.

Coping with growing Technological Sophistication

We are talking manager’s role. As a manager he/she is suppose to go with growing technological changes and sophistication. We were talking on technological changing and adoption of technological sophistication by manager. Robots are also being used in manufacturing which requires handling of bulky and dangerous materials. All these changes in production techniques have forced managers to find ways and means of relocating the workers rendered redundant. Simply, laying off is not always the best solution as it can involve a very high compensation cost. Moreover, in many countries because of the government’s political ideology or cultural values (as in Japan where the concept of employment with a company is life-long), laying off workers is not permissible. The use of computers in business has totally changed the way that managers make decisions. Managers today not only have access to more updated information but also better information which can improve quality of their decisions. For example a manager of online business company is using seo web design service to have professional layout Moreover, with electronic data processing managers can use complex statistical and mathematical models and tools to study the possible impacts of their decision. All this helps lessen the degree of risk by reducing the level of uncertainty. However, access to more information place the onus on the manager to define what the relevant information that he needs is and also ensure that the benefit derived from the information which receives is greater then the cost incurred in collecting and processing it.

Coping with growing Technological Sophistication

A manager is supposed to play different roles. These different roles are as coping with growing technological sophistication, sustaining leadership effectiveness, maintaining balance between creativity and conformity, postponing managerial obsolescence. In last post we talked about Meeting the challenge of change. We talked change with reference to live human in the organization. Today we are going to talk about coping with growing technological sophistication. The two areas which are witnessing dramatic changes in technology are production and information handling. Technology changes are highest in production because we are using machinery and technical knowledge there. Same way with information handling, new technologies are invented and rapidly accepted by business communities. Kentucky Law Firm is the best example of acceptance of technological sophistication. We talk about technological changes in production area. In the area of production, technological sophistication has reached the level where the entire production plants are fully automated and programmed to run with the minimum human intervention. For instance, at Nissan’s Zama plant, where Nissan cars are manufactured, the final assembly line operations are fully automated and controlled by robots. These robots have totally replaced men in such jobs in which the former can programmed to perform round the clock without any fatigue or loss of efficiency. Robots are also being used in manufacturing which requires handling of bulky and dangerous materials.

Postponing Managerial Obsolescence

Managers and executives, after 20 to 25 years of work experience, often find themselves having reached a plateau where, on the hand, the prospects of enhanced status, increased pay and perks are no longer motivators enough to work hard; and on the other, they find they are unable to relate to the latest managerial knowledge and skills and feel totally lost. In both cases, these managers cease to be productive and become a drag on the organization in terms of their heavy cost and inability to make meaningful contribution. This is the problem of managerial obsolescence, that is when managers become unproductive, or out of date, or both. In the situation where lack of motivation seems to be the cause, the solution lies in redesigning their job content to make it more meaningful. Mineral Makeup helps remain young to manager and not out of date. An aerospace company designates its senior engineering managers as consultants to its groups of young engineers, thus providing the right outlet for their rich experience. Training programmers aim to provide or improve knowledge and skills which can help the manager improve his performance on the job. Many companies regularly sponsor their senior managers to attend such training programmes. Other companies invite experts to their own company premises to courses, and basic course in functional areas workshops. Training programmes, refresher courses, and basic courses in functional areas are the solution for managers facing knowledge obsolescence. These training programmes are not restricted to senior managers alone. In fact, younger managers can also benefit from these programmes, especially those which provide knowledge of other functional areas such as production for non-production managers. Also beneficial for the young managers are workshops aimed at training them for the top level managements’ posts. Sustaining Leadership Effectiveness

Leadership has a formal aspect (as in most political or business leadership) or an informal one (as in most friendships). Speaking of “leadership” (the abstract term) rather than of “leading” (the action) usually it implies that the entities doing the leading have some “leadership skills” or competencies. Every manager is a leader in the sense that he has to influence his subordinates to work willingly for achieving the organizational objectives and inspire them to put in their best effort. The only way a manager can be acknowledged as a leader is by continually demonstrating his leadership abilities. If the manager always gives due importance to the welfare and interests of his employees, makes objective decisions that benefit everyone, he will rewarded by the confidence and trust of his people. The beginning is always made from the top – the beginning of rot or excellence, that us up to you to choose. Whichever you choose remember that is a very important choice, because once the momentum builds up it is difficult to stop and reverse the process. An effective leader must be a man with vision who can think and plan ahead, and also have persuasion to carry along all the people.

 The rule of privities of contract is the principle that a third party cannot sue for damages on a contract to which he is not a party. This rule has been strongly criticized in recent times, particularly where the contract is for the benefit of the third party. Indeed civil law systems of other States recognize and enforce such contracts. Despite calls for statutory reform, the rule persists in Indian Law to prevent a third party enforcing contractual provisions made in their favor. The common law doctrine of privities means that a “contract cannot, generally, confer rights or impose obligations arising under it on any person except the party to it”. The second part of this doctrine (under which a contract cannot impose liabilities on anyone except the parties to it) is generally regarded sensible and just as it would not be fair to subject people to contractual obligations without their consent. But the first part (under which a contract cannot confer rights on anyone except a party to it) has been subject of much criticism. A third party beneficiary, in the law of contracts, is a person who may have the right to sue on a contract, despite not having originally been a party to the contract. This right arises where the third party is the intended beneficiary of the contract, as opposed to an incidental beneficiary. It vests when the third party relies on or assents to the relationship, and gives the third party the right to sue either the promisor or the promisee of the contract, depending on the circumstances under which the relationship was created. In order for a third party beneficiary to have any rights under the contract, he must be an intended beneficiary, as opposed to an incidental beneficiary. The burden is on the third party to plead and prove that he was indeed an intended beneficiary. An incidental beneficiary is a party who stands to benefit from the execution of the contract, although that was not the intent of either contracting party. For example, if party A, hires party B, to renovate his house, and insists that B use a particular house painter—party C, because that house painter has an excellent reputation, then the house painter is an incidental beneficiary. Neither A nor B is entering into the contract with the particular intent to benefit C. A simply wants his house properly renovated; B simply wants to be paid to do the renovation. If the contract is breached by either party in a way that results in C never being hired for the job, C nonetheless has no rights to recover anything under the contract. The distinction that creates an intended beneficiary is that one party – called the promisee – makes an agreement to provide some consideration to a second party – called the promisor – in exchange for the promisor’s agreement to provide some product, service, or support to the third party beneficiary named in the contract. The promisee must have an intention to benefit the third party. For example, if party X, contracts with party Y to deliver certain product to party Z, for Z’s benefit, then in that case Z becomes the intended beneficiary under the said contract. When a contract confers the status of intended beneficiary on a third party, this does not mean only the performance must be rendered to or for the benefit of the third party, it also means that the contract manifests the intent to grant the beneficiary an independent cause of action to enforce the promise i.e. Once the beneficiary’s rights have vested, the original parties to the contract are both bound to perform the contract. Any effort by the promisor or the promisee to rescind or modify the contract at that point is void. Indeed, if the promisee changed his mind and offered to pay the promisor money not to perform, the third party could sue the promisee for tortious interference with the third party’s contract rights. There are three tests used to determine whether the third party beneficiary’s rights have vested:

1. if the beneficiary knows of and has detrimentally relied on the rights created;

2. if the beneficiary expressly assented to the contract at the request of one of the parties; or

3. if the beneficiary files a lawsuit to enforce the contract

Where a contract for the benefit of a third party is breached by the non-performance of the promisor, the beneficiary can sue the promisor for the breach just as any party to a contract can sue the other. Because the rights of the third party are defined by the contract created between the promisor and the promisee, the promisor may assert against the beneficiary any defenses to the contract that could be asserted against the promisee. These include all of the traditional basis by which the formation of a contract may be challenged like lack of capacity, lack of consideration, etc.; and all of the traditional bases by which non-performance on the contract may be excused like failure of consideration, impossibility, illegality, etc.

The term minor is used to refer to a person who is under the age in which one legally assumes adulthood and is legally granted rights afforded to adults in society. Depending on the jurisdiction and application, this age may vary, but is usually marked at either 12, 16, 18, 20, or 21. Specifically, the status of minor is defined by the age of majority.[verification needed]. In countries like Japan, Taiwan, and South Korea, a minor is a person under 20 years of age. In New Zealand law, a minor is a person under 20 years of age, but most of the rights of adulthood are assumed at lower ages: for example, voting, entering into contracts, and having a will are all legally possible at 18. In many countries, including Australia, Canada, India, Philippines, United Kingdom, Brazil and Croatia, a minor is presently defined as a person under the age of 18. In the United States, where the age of majority is set by the individual states, minor usually refers to someone under the age of 18, but can be used in certain areas (such as gambling and the consuming of alcohol) to define someone under the age of 21. In the criminal justice system in some places, minor is not entirely synonymous, as a minor may be tried for a crime (and punished) as a juvenile or an adult (usually only for extremely serious crimes such as murder).

A  contract is an agreement between two or more parties that is intended to be enforceable. A contract may be created:

* Orally;

* In writing (including by electronic means or through a website);

* By inference or conduct; or

* By a combination of all or any of the above.

Essential elements?

For a binding contract to be formed there must be:

* An offer which is accepted and for which valid consideration is given;

* An intention to create a legal relationship; and

* Certainty of terms.

Special rules and principles may apply to contracts that concern specific subject matter, such as employment contracts, the sale of land, and the sale of goods.

The offer

* Must be communicated.

* Can be revoked at any time prior to acceptance.

* Must be distinguished from an invitation to treat which is where a party communicates that it is prepared to enter negotiations with a view to forming a contract.

The acceptance

* The acceptance:

* Must be communicated.

* Must be of the offer made, otherwise it could be a counteroffer.

* If posted, occurs on the date posted, if by phone, fax, or email, it occurs when received.

Consideration

* Must be valuable. Something must be supplied in return for the promise made by the offered, e.g. money.

* Must not be unlawful or gratuitous.

* Must not be something already done or suffered (past consideration).

Intention

* The parties must intend to be bound by the contract. However, performance of the contract may be conditional on other matters occurring.

Certainty

* There must be certainty as to the parties, subject matter, and price. However, a contract that leaves terms to be determined by a third party will not be invalid for uncertainty.

* Many contracts require parties to agree to standard terms and conditions. Make sure you read the fine print so that you understand what you are signing up to.

Proving a contract

It may be necessary at some point to prove the existence of the contract or explain or defend its actions before a court or some other forum.

An oral contract may be difficult to prove, for example, if the parties to the contract disagree on its terms or whether it was ever formed.

A paper trail is important to proving a written or electronic contract. Care should be taken not to destroy relevant written evidence of a contract.

Enforceability

Although a contract may have all of the essential elements, it may not be enforceable because of some other issue, such as:

* Lack of capacity of one of the parties (eg one of the parties is a child).

* Where a mistake is made about the nature of the contract. Relief may be granted under the Contractual Mistakes Act 1977 where the mistake results in a substantially unequal exchange of values.

* Where there has been misrepresentation of a particular fact or facts inducing a person to enter into the contract. Under the common law and the Contractual Remedies Act 1979 there may be a right to cancel the contract and/or claim damages.

* Where a contract is illegal or immoral or is effected by duress or undue influence of one party over another.

* Where a contract unduly restrains a person in their trade.

Remedies for breach

Remedies for wrongful failure by a party to perform their obligations under a contract may include:

* Damages;

* Cancellation of contract; or

* Specific performance.

Damages

Generally, damages will be awarded if the loss suffered:

* Was caused by the breach; and

* Is not too remote, ie the loss was reasonably forseeable.

The amount recoverable is usually the amount necessary to put the party not in breach in the same position as if the contract had been performed.

Cancellation

In addition to damages, common law and the Contractual Remedies Act 1979 may allow a party to cancel or affirm a contract where the breach is due to a misrepresentation.

Specific performance

This is usually granted for breach of contracts for the sale of land or unique personal property.

It is not usually granted if damages are considered an adequate remedy; if they are against or for an infant; or to enforce a contract for personal services.

Statute of limitations

The limitation period for all simple contracts is 6 years from the time the cause of action, e.g. breach, and arises.

Finally

Never sign a contract unless you are sure you understand it. Generally, you will not be able to get out of it later. If there are any terms you are unsure about get legal advice.

Developing an IT application is an investment. Since after developing that application it provides the organization with profits. Profits can be monetary or in the form of an improved working environment  However. It carries risks, because in some cases an estimate can be wrong. And the project might not actually turn out to be beneficial.  Cost benefit analysis helps to give management a picture of the costs. Benefits and risks. It usually involves comparing alternate investments. Cost benefit determines the benefits and savings that are expected from the system and compares them with the expected costs.  The cost of an information system involves the development cost and maintenance cost. The development costs are one time investment whereas maintenance costs are recurring The development cost is basically the costs. Incurred during the various stages of the system development.

Each phase of the life cycle has a cost Some example are:

• Personnel
• Equipment
• Supplies
• Overheads
• Consultants’s

Cost and Benefit Categories.

In performing Cost benefit analysis (CBA) it is important to identify cost and benefit factors. Cost and benefits can be categorized into the following categories There are several cost factors/elements. These are hardware, personnel, facility, operation and supply costs.

In a broad sense the costs can be divided into two types

Development costs-

Development cost that are incurred during the development of the system are one time investment.

• Wages
• Equipment

Operating costs,

                  e.g. Wages

Supplies

Overheads

Another classification of the costs can be:

Hardware/software costs:

It includes the cost of purchasing or leasing of computers and it’s peripherals. Software costs involves required software costs.

      Personnel Costs:

It is the money, spent on the people involved in the development of the system. These expenditures include salaries, other benefits such as health insurance. Conveyance allowance, etc.

      Facility costs:

Expenses incurred during the preparation of the physical site where the system will be operational. These can wiring, flooring, acoustics, lighting and air conditioning

      Operating costs:

Operation costs are the expenses required for the day to day running of the system. This includes the maintenance of the system. That can be in the form of maintaining the hardware or application programs or money paid to professionals responsible for running of maintaining the system.

      Supply costs:

These are variable costs that vary proportionately with the amount of use of paper, ribbons, disks, and the like. These should be estimated and included in the overall cost of the system.

      Benefits

We can define benefit as

Profit or Benefit = Income – Costs

Benefits can be accrued by :

-Increasing income, or

-Decreasing costs, or

-both

Transaction Processing System (TPS):

A transaction is a business event such a sale to a customer. Other transactions include payment to an employee for work performed, purchase of raw materials and payment of an accounts payable. Transaction processing system. Transaction processing systems have three basic objectives.

• First, they must collect and store data concerning business events.

• Second, they provide the information necessary for the day to day control of business events.

• Finally, they serve as the database for higher level information systems that are used by managers and executives at the middle and upper level of an organization.
  Decision Support Systems:

A decision support system (DDS) is an integrated set of computer tools that allow a decision maker to interface directly with computers to create information  useful in making semi structured and unstructured decisions. These decisions may involve, for example, mergers and acquisitions, plant expansions, new products, stock portfolio management, or marketing. Management information systems in the past have been most successful in providing information for routine, structured and anticipated types of decisions. In addition, they have succeeded in acquiring and storing large quantioties of detailed data concerning transaction processing. They have been less successful in providing information for semi structured  or unstructured decisions, particularly those that were not anticipated when the computer information system was designed, The basic idea underlying decision support systems is to provide a set of computer based tools so that management information systems can produce information to support semi structured and unanticipated decisions.

 Office Automation Systems :

Office automation systems (OAS) use the computer to automate many of the routine tasks that are performed in a typical office. Perhaps the most widespread type of office automation system is word processing But there are many other applications in the office including desktop publishing, electronic mail, facsimile transmission and image processing.

 System Analysis is a management technique which helps us in designing a new system or improving an existing system. Techniques of Systems Analysis:

Requirement Analysis

Requirement Determination is generally done though extensive study of the system including the understanding of the goals, processes and constraints of the system for which information systems are designed. Several forms are also designed and illustrated in the texts of system analysis. In the view of the author such techniques must be left to the ingenuity of the analyst: there is no straight forward algorithm to elicit the requirement from the user. It is an iterative process which the analysis use while interviewing several user / users groups. It will continue to remain an art rather than science. For Requirement Specification both at the preliminary as well as the detailed stage, several diagramming techniques have evolved. In fact such diagrams have become the language of the analysis just as blue prints have become the language of the designer of balance sheet becoming the language of eth accountant. We will detail below some of the diagramming techniques.

Date Dictionary :

Another powerful tool that is extensively used is system analysis is the data dictionary. DDS as they are called provide a detailed reference to every data item- the different names by which the item is represented, in different program modules, different data structures used to represent the item in different modules, the modules where the data item is generated, where it is stored and destroyed. In essence it provides a quick snapshot of every data item used by the information system. Needless to say it is extremely detailed and very useful for consistency cheeks, system modification and completeness checking.

A typical data dictionary appears as follows:

1 page Data Dictionary

While these techniques are general in name and used by the analyst in the different stages of the system life cycle the following are specific to some of the system life cycle.

Detailed Design:

Roughly the detailed specifications are worked out followed by hardware /software plan. This constitutes system design which once again needs to be whetted by the user. Once this is done detailed system design starts. Effectively one can say that the analysis phase ends here and the design phase begins. Being a detailed design it may involve substantial effort on the part of technical system analysts, hardware, software, communication specialists etc. A major component of detailed system design is the database design covered in the next section. Actual coding is undertaken after the database design is complete.

Database Design

While DBMS permit efficient storage and manipulation of data files they do not cater to the structuring of the database themselves. After extensive uses of database in real world applications, several early analysts have felt the need for the right abstraction of data into the database so that any update / query operation captures the spirit of the meaning of the data stored in the data bases. Once of the basic observation made by the early analysts was the possible “loss of information” by careless update operations on databases. This led to the concepts of normalization pioneered by Code [].  Intuitively normalization leads to the decomposition in such a way that no information is lost due to processing of data. Normalization ensures no loss of information and avoids insertion update and other anomalies. A table (relation)   is said to be in First Normal Form (INF) if there is an identifying key and there are no repeating groups of attributes. Intuitively First Normal Form ensures that all the table entries are atomic.

The various factors which are responsible for the quality of a system are as follows.

• Correctness : the extent to which a program meets system specification and user objectives
• Reliability : the degree to which the system performs its intended functions over a time
• Efficiency: the amount of computer resources required by a program to perform a function.
• Usability: the effort required to learn and operate a system.
• Maintainability: the ease with which program errors are located and corrected.
• Testability: the effort required to test a program to ensure its correct performance.
• Portability the ease to transporting a program from one hardware configuration to another.
• Accuracy: the required precision in input editing, computations and output.
• Error tolerance: error detection and correction versus error avoidance.
• Expandability: ease of adding or expanding the existing data base.
• Access control and audit: control of access to the system and the extent to which that access can be audited.
• Communicativeness: how descriptive of useful the inputs and outputs of the system are.

Different levels of quality assurance:-

Analysts use three levels of quality assurance: testing verification with validation and certification.

1. Testing: The quality assurance goal of testing phase is to ensure completeness and accuracy of the system & to eliminate errors, so as to minimize the retesting process, since designers cannot prove 100 percent (100%) accuracy. Therefore, all that can be done is to put the system through a”fail test” cycle determine what will make it fail. A successful test, then, is one that finds errors.
2. Verification with validation: Like testing verification is also intended to find errors it is performed by executing a program in a simulated environment. Validation refers to the process of checking the quality of software in a live environment to find errors. When commercial systems are developed with the main aim of distributing for sale purposes, they first go through verification (alpha testing) the feedback from the validation phase generally brings some changes in the software to deal with errors and failure that are uncovered. Then a set of user sites is selected for putting the system into use on live basis. Validation may continue for several months during the course of validating the system, failure may occur and the software will be changed. Continued use may bring more failure and the need for still more changes.
3. Certification: The third level of quality assurance is to certify that the software package developed conforms to standards. With a growing demand for purchasing ready to use software, importance of certification has increased. A package that is certified goes through a team of computer specialists who test, review & determine how well it meets the user’s requirements and vendors, claims. Certification is issued only if the package is successful in all the tests. Certification, however, does not mean that it is the best package to adopt. It only attests that it will perform what the vendor claims.

Preliminary investigation refers to gathering the basic information about the nature of customer. Working of organization, existing system and the expectation from the proposed system.  In primary data collection, you collect the data yourself using methods such as interviews and questionnaires. The key point here is that the data you collect is unique to you and your research and, until you publish, no one else has access to it. There are many methods of collecting primary data and the main methods include:

• Questionnaires
• Interviews
• Focus group interviews
• Observation
• Case-studies
• Diaries
• Critical incidents
• Portfolios.

Questionnaires

Questionnaires are a popular means of collecting data, but are difficult to design and often require many rewrites before an acceptable questionnaire is produced.

Advantages:

• Can be used as a method in its own right or as a basis for interviewing or a telephone survey.
• Can be posted, e-mailed or faxed
• Can cover a large number of people of organizations
• Wide geographic coverage.

Disadvantages:

• Design problems.
• Questions have to be relatively simple.
• Historically low response rate(although inducements may help).
• Time delay whilst waiting for responses to be returned.

Interviews

Interviews is a technique that is primarily used to gain an understanding of the underlying reasons and motivations for people’s attitudes, preferences or behavior. Interviews can be undertaken on a personal one to one basis or in a group. They can be conducted at work, at home, in the street or in a shopping centre, or some other agreed location,

Personal interview

Advantages:

• Relatively cheap
• Quick
• Can cover reasonably large numbers of people or organizations.
• Wide geographic coverage.

Disadvantages:

• Often connected with selling
• Questionnaire required.
• Not everyone has a telephone.
• Repeat calls are inevitable-average 2.5 calls to get someone.

Diaries

A diary is a way of gathering information about the way individuals spend their time on professional activities. They are not about records of engagements or personal journals of thought! Diaries can record either quantitative or qualitative data, and in management research can provide information about work patterns and activities.

Advantages:

• Useful for collecting information from employees.
• Different writers compared and contrasted simultaneously.
• Allows the researcher freedom to move from one organization to another.
• Researcher not personally involved.

Disadvantages:

• Subjects need to be clear about what they are being asked to do. Why and what you plan to do with the data.
• Diarists need to be of a certain educational level.
• Some structure is necessary to give the diarist focus, for example, a list of headings.
• Encouragement and reassurance are needed as completing a diary is time-consuming and can be irritating after a while.

In computing, a file system (often also written as file system) is a method for storing and organizing computer files and the data they contain to make it easy to find and access them. File systems may use a data storage device such as a hard disk or CD-ROM and involve maintaining the physical location of the files, they might provide access to data on a file server by acting as clients for a network protocol (e.g., SMB, or 9P clients), or they may be virtual and exist only as an access method for virtual data (e.g., proofs). More formally, a file system is a set of abstract data types that are implemented for the storage, hierarchical organization, manipulation, navigation, access, and retrieval of data. File systems share much in common with database technology, but it is debatable whether a file system can be classified as a special-purpose database (DBMS).

Needs of file systems

The most familiar file systems make use of an underlying data storage device that offers access to an array of fixed-size blocks, sometimes called sectors, generally 512 bytes each. The file system software is responsible for organizing these sectors into files and directories, and keeping track of which sectors belong to which file and which are not being used. However, file systems need not make use of a storage device at all. A file system can be used to organize and represent access to any data, whether it be stored or dynamically generated (e.g. from a network connection). Whether the file system has an underlying storage device of not, file systems typically have directories which associate file names with files, usually by connecting the file name to an index into a file allocation table of some sort, such as the FAT in an MS-DOS file system, or an in ode in a Unix-like file system. Directory structures may be flat, of allow hierarchies where directories may contain subdirectories. In some file systems, may be flat, of allow hierarchies where directories may contain subdirectories. In some file systems, file names are structured, with special syntax for filename extensions and version numbers. In others, file names are simple strings, and per-file metadata is stored elsewhere.

Types of file systems organizations:-

There are various types of files in which the records are collected and maintained. They are categorized as:

• Master file
• Transaction file
• Table file
• Report file
• Back-up file
• Archival file
• Dump file
• Library file

 Master File: Master file are the most important types of file. Most design activities concentrate here. In a business application, these are considered to be very significant because they contain the essential records for maintenance of the organization’s business. A master file can be further categorized. It may be called as reference master file, in which the records are static or unlikely to change frequently. For example, a product file containing descriptions and codes’ a customer file containing name, address and account numbers are example of reference files. Alternatively, it may be described as a dynamic master file. In this file, we keep records which are frequently changed (updated) as a result of transactions or a other events. These two types of master file may be kept as separate files or may be combined, for example, a sales ledger file containing reference data, such as name, address, account number, together with current transaction and balance outstanding for each customer.

Transaction File:

A transaction is a temporary file used for two purposes. First of  all, it is used to accumulate data about events as they occur. Secondly, it helps in updating master files to reflect the results of current transactions. The term transaction refers to and business event that affects the organization and about which data is captured. Examples of common transactions in the organization are making purchases, hiring of workers of workers and recording of sales.

Table File:

A special type of master file is included in many systems to meet specific requirements where data must be referenced repeatedly. Table files are permanent files containing reference data used in processing transaction, updating master file or producing output. As the name implies, these files store reference data in tabular form. Table files conserve memory space and make the program maintenance easier by storing data in a file, that otherwise would be included in programs or master file records.

Sequential Organization

A sequential file contains records organized in the order they were entered. The order of the records is fixed. The records are stored and sorted in physical. Contiguous blocks within each block the records are in sequence. Records in these files can only be read or written sequentially. Once stored in the file, the record cannot be made shorter, or longer, or deleted. However, the record can be updated if the length does not change. (This is done by replacing the records by creating a new file.) New records will always appear at the end of the file. If the order of the records in a file is not important, sequential organization will suffice, no matter how many records you may have. Sequential output is also useful for report printing or sequential reads which some programs prefer to do.

Line-Sequential Organization

Line-Sequential files are like sequential files, except that the records can contain only characters as data. Line-sequential files are maintained by the native byte stream files of the operating system. In the COBOL environment, line-sequential file that are created with WRITE statements with the ADVANCING phrase can be directed to a printer as well as to a disk.

Indexed-sequential Organization

Key searches are improved by this system too. The single-level indexing structure is the simplest one where a file, whose records are pairs, contains a key pointer. This pointer is the position in the data file of the record with the given key. A subset of the records, which are evenly spaced along the data file, is indexed, in order to mark intervals of data records. This is how a key search is performed: the search key is compared with the index keys to find the highest index key coming in front of the search key. While a linear search is performed from the record that the index key points to. until the search key is matched or until the record pointed to by the next index entry is reached. Regardless of double file access (index + data) required by this sort of search, the access time reduction is significant compared with sequential file searches. Hierarchical extension of this scheme is possible since an index is a sequential file in itself, capable of indexing in turn by another second-level index, and so forth and so on. And the exploit of the hierarchical decomposition of the searches more and more, to decrease the access time will pay increasing dividends in the reduction of processing time. There is however a point when this advantage starts to be reduced by the increased cost of storage and this in turn will increase the index access time.

Inverted list

In file organization, this is a file that is indexed on many of the attributes of the data itself. The inverted list method has a single index for each key type. The records are not necessarily stored in a sequence. They are placed in the data storage area, but indexes are updated for the record keys and location.

Direct or hashed access

With direct or hashed access a portion of disk space is reserved and a “hashing” algorithm computes the record address. So there is additional space required for this kind of file in the store. Records are placed randomly through out the file. Records are accessed by addresses that specify their disc location… Also this type of file organization requires a disk storage rather than tape. It has an excellent search retrieval performance, but care must be taken to maintain the indexes. If the indexes become corrupt, what is left May as well go to the bit-bucket, so it is as well to have regular backups of this kind of file just as it is for all stored valuable data.

The early part of history of social work group is quite untraceable and cannot be focused on the contribution of any one individual. There is no particular incident or date of its beginning. However, many authors agreed that the various Charity organization Societies prevailing at that time were the earliest. The old social agencies always had a base of philanthropy but the newly emerging ones came up with the approach of ‘Self Help’. A need was felt for mutual help and support. The labor movement that developed talked about adult education and outing such as camps for workers and their families. There were a number of youth agencies with strong participations of the youth. Another sector, which was at the base of group, was the recreation movement. It emphasized the rights of the educationally and culturally disadvantage section of the society. It promoted the setting up of playground for the children and building of primary schools, organizing educational camps for the children belonging to the needy section. The early social groups were various types of settlement houses, Jewish centre, camp fires and neighborhood centre.  After First World War, social group was predominantly by the Charity Organization Societies and at that time social group was hardly developed. However there were a large number of services with democratic outlook. The beginning of social group in social work curriculum were made by ‘Clara Kaiser’ who offered the first course as a part of professional social work curriculum in School of Social Work in Cleveland and her work was later taken by ‘Grace Coyle’. The integration of group work into social work practice was not easy but was developing gradually. In case the objective of rendering help to individual in need was easy to comprehend. The neighborhood approach and self help movement behind group work had little to do with individual help and coping that. In 1920, Group Work got a lot of input from different disciplines such as education, psychology and social work. In 1936, the American Association for study of groups work was constituted. Its aim was to clarify the concept of group work, yet this confusion prevailed for a number of years. The period during the Second World War was one that made an impact on the integration of group work with the social work profession. It was the war services which brought the group workers and case workers together. Eventually the concept of Group Work and Individual Work were clear.The following year, there were many uncertainties for supporters of group work. The American Association for Study of Group Work found it very difficult to associate the group work with any specific profession. Some argued that it should include in Education. The turning point where it came to be associated with Social Work was 1946 and the person to which it can be attributed is ‘Grace Longwell Coyle’. She built up the case for integration of Group Work into professional Social Work and this process was finalized in the year 1955 when the American Association for the study of Group Work joined the newly formed ‘National Association of Social Workers’. The year 1960 saw a decline in the importance given to group work practice. However, in 1979, Group Workers from America and Canada organized the First annual conference with a aim of making practitioners aware of the benefits of Group Work. The history of Social Work Group shows how it changed from the design of a field, a movement, a goal to a Social Work method.

Colonialism is a term which refers to the settlement of colonies and migrate there as inhabitants.This phenomenon was exhibited by the big powers of the world in 18th century.Tracing about the colonialism,we see that whenever a nation builds an empire ,it tries to strengthen itself by creating its colonies.This was done to obtained the maximum benefit in terms of imports and exports from these colonies.The other side of it was to show the strength of that country.In short ,the maximum the colonies of a nation,the greater was its strength.

Its destructive role in India:

It is the extension of a nation’s sovereignty over territory by the establishment beyond its borders. It may be either settler colonies or administrative dependencies in which they ruled indigenous populations directly or displaced. Colonizing nations normally dominate the resources of the India. They may also try to impose social, cultural and religious structures on the conquered areas of India. Colonialism is often used interchangeably with imperialism. We can also define imperialism as, making slaves of the indians. Some times it is used more broadly as it covers control exercised informally as well as formal military control. Colonialism in India refer to a set of beliefs that are used for the promotion of this system. Often it was based on ethnocentric belief that the morals and values of colonizer were superior and more valuable as compare to India colonize. We can’t imagine that how false and lonely life a colonialist leaves in a foreign colony. It also means gaining of political and trade advantages over India by a powerful country which rules them.

(b)  Political theories, according to Sabine, “play a double role”, in the sense that while they belong to the abstract world of thought, they also influence beliefs which become causes and serve as causal events in historical situations. It is also necessary to understand whether a political theory is true or false, sound or silly, valid or unreliable. This involves the question of values. It is, therefore, necessary that in the understanding of political theory we should try to bring in the factual, the causal as well as the valuation factors.

Perhaps the most provocative and debatable contribution to the concept of social structure was that of Claude Lévi-Strauss, the French structuralize, who is famous for his ingenious cross-cultural analysis of myths and kinship systems. If for functionalism, society is a ‘kind of living creature’, consisting of parts, which can be ‘dissected and distinguished’, for structuralism, it is the analogy from language that helps us in conceptualizing society. From the study of a given piece of language, the linguist tries to arrive at its grammar, the underlying rules which make an expression meaningful, although the speakers of that language may not know about it. Similarly, the structuralize from a given piece of social behavior tries to infer its underlying structure. In structuralism, the shift is from observable behavior to structure, from organic analogy to language (Barnard 2000). Further, structuralism submits that the set of relations between different parts can be transformed into ‘something’ that appears to be different from what it was earlier. It is the idea of transformation — of one into another — that lies at the core of structuralism, rather than the quality of relations. Edmund Leach (1968: 486) has given a good example to illustrate this. A piece of music can be transformed in a variety of ways. It is written down, played on a piano, recorded on a phonographic record, transmitted over the radio, and finally played back to the audience. In each case, the piece of music passes through a ‘whole series of transformations’. It appears as ‘printed notes, as a pattern of finger movements, as sound waves, as modulations of the grooves on a piece of bakelite, as electromagnetic vibrations, and so on.’ But what is common to all these manifestations of music, one different from the other, and each conditioned by its own rules, is their structure. In a similar fashion, while different societies vary, what remains invariant (and common) to them is their structure. Lévi-Strauss (1963) aptly showed this in one of his studies where he compared the totemic society of the Australian Aborigines with Indian caste system, and found that both of them had the same structure. If for Radcliff-Brown, structure is observable, for Levi- Strauss, it is an abstract concept. If for Radcliff- Brown, what persists is the ‘structure’ of a particular society, at a particular point of time and place, for Lévi-Strauss, what persists is the ‘structure of the entire human society’. Lévi-Strauss makes three distinctions: first, between observation and experimentation on models; second, the conscious and unconscious character of the models; and third, between mechanical and statistical models. The observation of social relations and the construction of models after these facts need to be distinguished from ‘experiments’ on models. By experimentation, Lévi-Strauss means the ‘controlled comparison’ of models of the same or of a different kind, with an intention to identify the model that accounts best for the observed facts. In a structural analysis, the first step is to observe the facts without any bias, then to describe them in relationship to themselves and in relation to the whole. From this, models are constructed, and in the final analysis, the best model is chosen. This distinction is with reference to the anthropologist who studies society

There is little information about the method and nature of taxation before the time of Aladdin kalji. There is no uniformity in imposing taxes all over the periods. In many cases taxes were collected through tax farmers. The first references to imposition of taxes were provided by Barani (1357). He informed us that Aladdin khalji imposed three types of taxes. They are land tax, ghari and charai. Ghari was a tax of house. In western Rajasthan a tax commonly known as jhumpis was levied on pastoral communities. The Levi was 1/40^th of a rupee per jhumpi. In Maharashtra it was known as ghartaka.

Charai:-Alauddin khalji imposed a tax called charai on milk cows. It continued till firuz shah’s reign who forbade collection both ghari and charai. In Maharashtra it was customary to pay ½ a seer of butter and the owner of flock of sheep gave 1 sheep to the watandar on yearly basis. vijayanagar ruler collected a separate goat tax called adatere.

Pasture-taxes: taxes were also paid for the use of pastural lands. In western Rajasthan it was known as ghasmari, pancharai and karabghas. The tax levied on livestock feeding on grass was known as ghasmari, while pancharai was imposed on animals feeding on leaves. It was collected from camel owners.

Irrigational tax: firuz established a vast network of canals in his empire. The villages which were served by canals had to pay haqq-i-shurb (water tax). It amounted to 1/10^th of the produce. Mal was a kind of irrigation tax imposed on Persian wheel in western Rajasthan it amounted to less than 5 percent of the total land revenue. The rate of imposition was highest in khalisa territories than in the pattas.

Sardeshmukhi: this tax was levied and collected by shibaji in his own dominion, collected swaraj on the basis of his claim as the sardeshmukh of the dominion. Thus it was claimed by shibaji as a matter of right unlike chauth it was 10 percent of the total revenue realized. Sardeshmukhi was fixed along with Jama bandi.

Chauth: chauth was another tax levied by shibaji. But the koli Rajas were collecting chauth from the Portuguese much before shivaji levied it.it was ,evied on mughal terrirories also which were under the indirect control of the Marathas.it was a tax amounting to 1/4^th of the revenue realized by the Maratha state.

Peshkush: all zamindars and the tributary chiefs were liable to pay peshkush as a mark of submission. The revenues collected went directly to the imperial treasury. In the deccan we have seen that official had to pay a price for retaining their posts. In Hyderabad they had to shed off 7 and half year income to the treasury. In Orissa areas under the native princes who surrendered paid a fixed annual peshkash known as garhjats.

Jiziya: jiziya as a tax was levied as early as mohammad bin quasim’s time. Prior to firuz’s reign jiziya formed part of kharaj and was commonly known as kharaj-o-jiziya. Firuz shah tughlug introduced a poll ta side by side kharaj. Thus from firuz’s reign onwards the two were assessed separately and not together. Jizia was first abolished by Akbar in 1564 and finally in 1579. From first class it was extracted at the rate of 48 dirham’s; on second 24 and on the third 12 dirham’s. After mughal occupation of Golconda in 1687 Aurangzeb imposed this tax in the Deccan.

Salt tax: it was imposed by shivaji in 1671 at the rate of 12 rukas per maund. Nainsi records the state’s income for pachpadra pits alone ( western rajastan) at 10,000 duganis/Rs250. Taxes to the meet the expenditure of the army were varied type like Faujbad,ghasadana,kapur paik,gadcavani, karsai, mohimpatti, vartaria, padai-kanikkai etc.

On the occasion of festival like holy, rakshabandhan, diwali etc separate taxes were paid.

Marriage tax: taxes were also collected for getting married. It was ¼ rupee in maharastra called varadtaka or lagnataka. In Vijayanagara period pendli-sunka or maduveyasunka was the tax realized at the time of marriage

The period between circa 200 B.C and A.D. 300 in conventional historical writings is usually perceived as a dark period, largely woing to the absence of territorially extensive political formation. The khushana imperial project, covering large parts of northern India, was an exception. In the othe hand the satavahana’s extended their empire to a large extended. They had their empire in the Deccan. A discussion regarding the nature of Kushana State and Satavahana State will help to have a glimpse about the two states. Kanishka was the most powerful king of the Kushan dynasty. It is not exactly known in which year Kaniska ascended the throne. According to some historians, Kaniska ascended the throne in 78 A.D. Kaniska introduced a new era in that year which is known as Sakabda. The geographical spread of the Kushana coins and inscriptions as well as the richness of the Kushana layers in terms of archaeological material found in various sites from central Asia to Varanasi would on the face of it suggest the existence of a well organized, centralized state. However, the available administrative details appear to be for from statisfactory. It is said that the political organisation did not possess the rigid centralization of the mouryas. The inscriptions and coins do not indicate a powerful and large administrative machinery. The details of provincial and local administration are hazy. It is doubtful if the Kushanas exercised direct administrative control over all parts of their territories. Below the king there seems to have been the Kshatrapas at the provincial level. It has been  suggested that there were about five to seven satrapies. Contemporary sources do not provide sufficient information about  such administrative units or the Kshatrapas them selves. The sarnath Buddhist image inscription of the time of Kanishka tefers to the reinstatement of two Kshatra refers to the reinstatement of two Kshatrapas who were the descendants of a mahaksnatrapa. For analyzing the positing political system the administrative details are rather insufficient. How the different levels of administration related to one another is not known.  Given the small size of the administrative machinery and the abudance of Kushana coins, particularly in gold and copper, it is said that the officials would have been paid in cash. The pre-occupation of the Kushanas with the legitimation of their power and their non-sectarian, broad-based syncretic religious policy in the back ground of the paucity of information related to administration raises questions which have a bearing on the nature and structure of the Kushana state. To elaborate, the kushanas used high sounding titles derived from a variety of cultural contexts. On the conterary the satbahan dynasty ruled in south India most probably, in 1^st Century B.C. Simuk was the founder of the Satbahan dynasty. In 106 A.D. Gautamiputra Satkarni as cended the throne and he was the most powerful reler of this dynasty. Gautamiputra Satkarni was a brave and intelligent kind. He accepted the challenge of the the invadets and defeatedthe saka kind Kanpur, Gautamiputra Satkarni recaptured Malwa, sourashtra and some other territories, Gautamiputra Satkarni regained the lost glory of the Satbahana dynasty. His Kingdom extended from Malwa to Karnat. The Satavahana State, as in the case of any other state, has to be studied against its socio-economic background and hence at the outset, it is imperative to characterize the social formation and examine the institutional features of the political process therein. Unfortunately, the existing historiography hardly gives enough knowledge about the life of the people in those days to charaterise the social formation. However, it is important for a student studding the discipline to know the available knowledge and use it for understanding the process of state formation. The satavahana state was structured by the dominance of the monarch, a miniature variant of the kautilyan vijigishy assisted by a team of amatyas, senapati-s and dandanayaka-s. it needs no special mention of the fact that the structure of the Satvahana State was not of a cenfralised character in any pure sense. Which ever the Mauryan was not. We cannot say that direct control of the king and that all the powers of the state emanated entirely from the capital. It was strong monarchy at the heart of the kingdom with the provicial or regional rulers and chieftains in the periphery accepting the king’s suzerainty reinforced by the standing army under the mahasenapati stationed at the capital.

Some of the main features of the modern world are the formation of the nation states, the expansion of Europe, technological changes, and the incorporation of the whole world into one international system. Technological change and economic integration were greatly accelerated during after the two world wars in the 20^th century. Consequently globalization took place and conditions. For new challenges, opportunities and rivalries in the 21^st century were created the 20^th century was termed the “age of extremes” by historian Eric Hobsbawm because it saw unprecedented death and destruction during two world wars and other conflicts. But parallel during the same century there was remarkable advancements mad in the field of science, economics and humanity. The 20^th century is also called the short century to highlight the impact of the Great War, the Russian revolution and the collapse of the Soviet Union on the whole world. Rivalries between the traditional ‘great powers’ of Europe, brought about the catastrophes of the first and the second world wars. The second half of the  20^th century was dominated by a multifaceted rivalry known as the cold war between the western or capitalist ‘bloc’ and the eastern or communist ‘bloc’. At this time enormous arsenals of nuclear weapons were amassed by both US and the USSR. Other international rivalries in various regions of the world such as south Asia and west Asia, and international tensions within many newly independent, ethnically plural and economically underdeveloped countries sometimes accompanied the cold war. Though cold war ended at a particular time, during the post cold war period several unresolved conflicts continued into a new century. The 20^th century was marked by rivalries between France and Germany Military and naval expansion. Mobilization plans and a tightening of hostile coalitions built a momentum for war over riding arguments for peace emanating from trade, industry and good sense, international crisis erupted over Bosnia Herzegovina in1908. Morocco in 1911, and the Balkans in 1912, but were defused by negotiation and restraint. In 1914 the First World War was declared on Germany by Britain. The US declared war on Germany only on April 6, 1917. Germany gains on both eastern and western fronts were nullified. An armistice war declared on November 11, 1918 and a peace conference opened in Paris on 18 January 1919. Territorial changes failed to solve the basic problems of insecurity in Europe. The Ottoman Empire too was abolished with the treaty of Sevres, 1920; turkey became a republic its Arab provinces were placed under the British Empire. In accordance with the treaty of Versailles Hungary, Czechoslovakia and Poland became independent. Austria ceded some of its parts to Sicily. In the post world war-1 period there were continuous disputes over borders and treatment of minorities in eastern and central Europe. The small new states were equally fearful of Germany to their west and Russia to the east. The League of Nations proved unequal to the task of maintaining peace, not least Russia was the first great power to collapse under the strain of the Great War. From the beginning of 1917 Russia experienced a treatment domestic political and socio-economic with several factions struggling to gain exclusive power. Totalitarianism was not confined to the Soviet Union and surfaced to varying degrees in the 1920s and 1930s in Italy, Japan, and Spain and most completely in Germany. Benito Mussolini established a fascism regime in Italy in October 1921.in 1936 Mussolini signed a pact with Adolph Hitler to create a ‘Berlin Rome axis’ Japan determination drive since the late.19^th century led it to graft what it considered the best of America, Britain and Germany. Japans 21 demands were not met at Versailles. As a strong power of Asia Japan announced its withdrawal from the league in 1933.the second world war was a total war unprecedented in its destruction of military and non-military assets and people, and truly world wide in its scope. In September 1939 it out broke in Europe. It is immediately followed by the Sino-japans war and succeeded in 1941 by the entry of USA against both Japan and Germany. The war in Europe ended with Germany’s surrender on 10 may 1945 and in Asia with japans surrender on 15 august 1945. Year Second World War ended. Within two years of the end of the Second World War the chief victors had fallen out with each other. Europe was divided into two opposite forces. The main rivalry was between Russia and USA. It is known as cold war.

Actually the Writing was began in the time of Bronze Age. At that time people used to communicate just by singular letters and marks or symbols. The importance and the functionality of writing lies in the fact that communication and expression can reach out to more people. The Bronze Age supported an urban population, skilled craftsmen, traders, priests, writers and clerks. Writing emerged in history around this time. The primary forms of writing systems in the Bronze Age involved hieroglyphs of Egypt. As copper and bronze were now the principal metals used for making tools and weapons, this period is described as the Bronze Age. To secure bronze tools, the community encouraged specialists like miners, smelters and smiths. After all, to make a Bronze Age one must know more science than one needed in the stone ages. By 5000 B.C. hot only was the technique of mixing copper and tin to make bronze known in the India. Mesopotamia and Greece, but the wheel also had been discovered. The application of the wheel (with copper nails) revolutionised transportation and two-wheeled and four-wheeled carts were being commonly used by this time for a variety at purposes. By this time wind too was being used as a source of energy primarily to do water Transportation. We find sail, boats being used from Polynesia to Egypt. The ruins of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa tell us of the application of kiln-fired bricks which meant a huge expenditure of fuel and the ability of artisans to control high temperatures. In all the civilization except the Mesopotamian, the writing system was logographic, with one sign representing one word (a concept, quality or things). Egypt maintained this system till about the fourth century A.D. and china, with great modification, until today.Writing made possible the keeping of records, and it is no coincidence that, its appears at those historical junctures when public architecture, viz today. Where the letter is concerned a copper feet or piece of paper carrying the name of a pirriter on it is tied with a black thread and warns the body. Instead of the name of the pir, appeared formula may be written on it. Eighter of reversed is believed to protect the wearer from evil pirits or malicious. Ghosts that bring diseases or misfortune, they offer in an instant doing misfortune, and then vanish. A statue of the king, gudea, who ruled a little later in Lagash. Illustration10) also portrays the dominant male, it with a subtle difference. It is carved in a hard, block, and naturally glossy stone, diorite. You will notice that although the right arm is one with the rest of the statue, for the rest there is absolute technical mastery of carving. Observe the perfect proportions of the head, the muscles of arm and best even when covered by the garments, and the slender fingers. This is not light or grateful but monumental work while on the one hand it depicts. Gudea in person or as a person, it is also the depiction of the ideal, strong king in the royal robe.

There is no doubt that Ashoka’s personal religion was Buddhism. In his Bhabru edict he says he had full faith in Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha. He showed respect to all sects and faiths and believed in using among ethical and moral values of all sects. In Rock Edict VII he says all seeks desire both self control and purity of mind. In Rock Edict XII he pronounces his policy of equal respect to all religious sects more clearly. The Dhamma as explained in Ashoka’s edicts is not a religion or a religious system but a moral law, a common code of conduct or an ethical order. In Pillar Edict II Ashoka himself puts the question what is Dhamma? Then he enumerates two basic attributes or constituents of Dhamma: less evil and many good deeds. He says such evils as rage, cruelty, anger, pride and envy are to be avoided and many good deeds like kindness, liberty, truthfulness, gentleness, selfcontrol, purity of heart, attachment to morality, inner and outer purity etc are to be pursued vigorously. Ashoka established hospitals for humans and animals and made liberal donations to the Brahmans and ascetics of different religious sects. He erected rest houses, caused wells to be dug and trees to be planted along the roads. Ashoka took for the propagation of Buddhism. He conducted Dharamyatras and instructed his officials to do the same. He appointed special class of officials called Dharamahamatras whose sole responsibility was to propagate Dhamma among the people. Ashoka sent missions to foreign countries also to propagate dhamma. His missionaries went to western Asia, Egypt and Eastern Europe. Of the Foreign kings whose kingdoms thus received the message of Buddhism five are mentioned in the inscriptions of Ashoka namely Antiochus, Syria and Western Asia, Ptolemy Philadelphus of Egypt, Antigonus Gonatas of Macedonia, Megas of Cyrene and Alexander of Epirus. Ashoka even sent his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra to propagate Buddhism in Srilanka. After converting to Buddhism, one of the greatest emperors of India, Ashoka disseminated the teachings and knowledge of the Buddhist scriptures. Ashoka always had belief in morals and principles and had high ideals in life. These came to be known as Dhamma of Emperor Ashoka. The word Dhamma is the Prakrit version of the Sanskrit word Dharma. Given here is further information about king Asoka’s Dharma.  Ashoka’s Dhamma is a philosophical entity that emphasizes on the high ideals in order to lead a successful life. He wanted everyone to live peacefully and co-exist in a harmonious environment. Some of his ideals were to shun war and spread peace, stop animal sacrifices, respect elders, masters treating slaves like humans, promoting vegetarianism, etc. These ideals if followed correctly lead one to a higher level of living. Ashoka wanted to spread peace and prosperity in his kingdom.  The true essence of Ashoka’s Dhamma is present in the form of the various rock edicts. The principles of Ashoka’s Dhamma are inscribed on those rock edicts in Brahmi language. These edicts are a code for how to lead life in a way that you become an inspiration for others. Ashoka believed that a king should treat his subjects the same way a father treats his children.

In the year 1919, the British Government passed a new rule called Rowlatt Act, under which the Government had the authority and power to arrest people and keep them in prisons without any trial if they are suspected with the charge of terrorism. The government also earned the power to refrain the newspapers from reporting and printing news. The Act was ill famed as `Black Act` by the people and Indians revolt in protest against the Rowlatt Act.The positive aspect of reform by British Government was subjected to severe sabotage by the Rowlatt act of 1919.The act was named after the recommendations made in the previous year to the Imperial Legislative Council by the Rowlatt Commission. The Rowlatt Commission was appointed to investigate the `seditious conspiracy` of the Indian people. The Law passed empowered the Viceroy Government with extraordinary power to stop all violations by silencing the press, confining political activists without trial and arresting any individual suspected of sedition and treachery and arresting individuals without any warrant. A nationwide protest was raised by calling a Hartal (cessation of work). Mahatma Gandhi Mahatma Gandhi was extremely agitated by enactment of Rowlatt Act. He was extremely critical about the act and argued that everyone cannot be punished for isolated political crime. The Act resulted in extensive outrage of political leaders as well as the common public and Government adapted more repressive measures to dominate the Native people. Gandhi and other leaders of national Congress found it futile to take the measure of constitutional opposition and thereby called a `hartal` where Indians suspended all the business and fasted to show their hatred for the British legislation. However, the success of the Hartal in Delhi was dominated as the tension raise high and resulted in riot in Punjab and other provinces. Gandhi found that Indians were not ready yet for the protest in the path of `Ahimsa` (non-violence), which was integral part of Satyagraha and the Hartal was suspended.

Gandhiji was released from jail in 1924. He and his close followers, such as C. Rajagopalachari and Rajendra prasad, occupied themselves with the constructive programme. Such as hand-spinning on the charkha, uplift of the harijans or members of the depressed classed popularization of temperance, and so forth. But not all the congressmen were willing to abandon political action. In 1922 a group had formed around Motilal Nehru and C. R. Das that wished to enter the government`s legislative councils and wreck them front within. They were opposed by the `no-changers` who insisted that the 1920 programme, which called for the boycott of council elections, should not be altered. At the Gaya congress in December 1922, matters came to a head. The `no-changers` prevailed, but early the next year the `pro-changers` formed their own party. This party was at first known as the congress-Khilafat Swaraj party and later simply the swarajya or swaraj party. Motilal Nehru The new councils were inaugurated in 1921. The non-congress parties which had entered them had not been successful in influencing government policy. And eventually diarchy proved to be a failure. Provincial minister could not act effectively even in `transferred` subjects because the new safeguards made the governors more autocratic even than before. Only the Montford reform showed that the British were still unwilling to grant responsible government. C. R. Das and Motilal Nehru decided that the way to combat this situation was to enter the provincial legislative councils. Central legislative assembly carries out a policy of `uniform, continuous and consistent obstruction, with a view to make government through the assembly and councils impossible would force the British to grant real reforms. In a special session of congress held in Delhi in September 1923, a compromise between no-changers and pro-changers was reached. The former would continue with the constructive programme, whereas the latter could contest the upcoming elections. Gandhiji gave his blessings to this arrangement.

Communism,” for its part, once referred to a cooperative society that would be based morally on mutual respect and on an economy in which each contributed to the social labor fund according to his or her ability and received the means of life according to his or her needs. Today, “communism” is associated with the Stalinist gulag and wholly rejected as totalitarian. Its cousin, “socialism” — which once denoted a politically free society based on various forms of collectivism and equitable material returns for labor — is currently interchangeable with a somewhat humanistic bourgeois liberalism. During the 1980s and 1990s, as the entire social and political spectrum has shifted ideologically to the right, “anarchism” itself has not been immune to redefinition. In the Anglo-American sphere, anarchism is being divested of its social ideal by an emphasis on personal autonomy, an emphasis that is draining it of its historic vitality. A Stirnerite individualism — marked by an advocacy of lifestyle changes, the cultivation of behavioral idiosyncrasies and even an embrace of outright mysticism — has become increasingly prominent. This personality “lifestyle anarchism” is steadily eroding the socialistic core of anarchist concepts of freedom. Let me stress that in the British and American social tradition, autonomy and freedom are not equivalent terms. By insisting the need to eliminate personal domination, autonomy focuses on the individual as the formative component and locus of society. By contrast, freedom, despite its looser usages, denotes the absence of domination in society, of which the individual is part. This contrast becomes very important when individualist anarchists equate collectivism as such with the tyranny of the community over its members Today, if an anarchist theorist like L. Susan Brown can assert that “a group is a collection of individuals, no more and no less,” rooting anarchism in the abstract individual, we have reason to be concerned. Not that this view is entirely new to anarchism; various anarchist historians have described it as implicit in the libertarian outlook. Thus the individual appears ab novo, endowed with natural rights and bereft of roots in society or historical development. But whence does this “autonomous” individual derive? What is the basis for its “natural rights,” beyond a priori premises and hazy intuitions? What role does historical development play in its formation? What social premises give birth to it, sustain it, and indeed nourish it? How can a “collection of individuals” institutionalize itself such as to give rise to something more than an autonomy that consists merely in refusing to impair the “liberties” of others — or “negative liberty,” as Isaiah Berlin called it in contradistinction to “positive liberty,” which is substantive freedom, in our case constructed along socialistic lines? In the history of ideas, “autonomy,” referring to strictly personal “self-rule,” found its ancient apogee in the imperial Roman cult of liberates. During the rule of the Julian-Claudine Caesars, the Roman citizen enjoyed a great deal of autonomy to indulge his own desires — and lusts — without re-approval from any authority, provided that he did not interfere with the business and the needs of the state. In the more theoretically developed liberal tradition of John Locke and John Stuart Mill, autonomy acquired a more expansive sense that was opposed ideologically to excessive state authority. During the nineteenth century, if there was any single subject that gained the interest of classical liberals, it was political economy, which they often conceived not only as the study of goods and services, but also as a system of morality. Indeed, liberal thought generally reduced the social to the economic. Excessive state authority was opposed in favor of a presumed economic autonomy. Ironically, liberals often invoked the word freedom, in the sense of “autonomy,” as they do to the present day. Despite their assertions of autonomy and distrust of state authority, however, these classical liberal thinkers did not in the last instance hold to the notion that the individual is completely free from lawful guidance. Indeed, their interpretation of autonomy actually presupposed quite definite arrangements beyond the individual — notably, the laws of the marketplace. Individual autonomy to the contrary, these laws constitute a social organizing system in which all “collections of individuals” are held under the sway of the famous “invisible hand” of competition. Paradoxically, the laws of the marketplace override the exercise of “free will” by the same sovereign individuals who otherwise constitute the “collection of individuals.” No rationally formed society can exist without institutions and if a society as a “collection of individuals, no more and no less” were ever to emerge, it would simply dissolve. Such dissolution, to be sure, would never happen in reality. The liberals, nonetheless, can cling to the notion of a “free market” and “free competition” guided by the “inexorable laws” of political economy. Alternatively, freedom, a word that shares etymological roots with the German Freiheit (for which there is no equivalent in Romance languages), takes its point of departure not from the individual but from the community or, more broadly, from society. In the last century and early in the present one, as the great socialist theorists further sophisticated ideas of freedom, the individual and his or her development were consciously intertwined with social evolution — specifically, the institutions that distinguish society from mere animal aggregations. What made their focus uniquely ethical was the fact that as social revolutionaries they asked the key question — What constitutes a rational society? — A question that abolishes the centrality of economics in a free society. Where liberal thought generally reduced the social to the economic, various socialisms (apart from Marxism), among which Kropotkin denoted anarchism the “left wing,” dissolved the economic into the social.3 In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, as Enlightenment thought and its derivatives brought the idea of the mutability of institutions to the foreground of social thought, the individual, too, came to be seen as mutable. To the socialistic thinkers of the period, a “collection” was a totally alien way of denoting society; they properly considered individual freedom to be congruent with social freedom and, very significantly, they defined freedom as such as an evolving, as well as a unifying, concept. In short, both society and the individual were historicized in the best sense of this term: as an ever-developing, self-generative and creative process in which each existed within and through the other. Hopefully, this historicization would be accompanied by ever-expanding new rights and duties. The slogan of the First International, in fact, was the demand, “No rights without duties, no duties without rights” — a demand that later appeared on the mastheads of anarcho-syndicalist periodicals in Spain and elsewhere well into the present century. Thus, for classical socialist thinkers, to conceive of the individual without society was as meaningless as to conceive of society without individuals. They sought to realize both in rational institutional frameworks that fostered the greatest degree of free expression in every aspect of social life.

The concept of Swadeshi as explained by Gandhi, is employment of unemployed or semi-employed people by encouraging village industries and the in general trial was towards building a non-violent society. Strategies of the swadeshi movement therefore involved boycotting British products and the revival of domestic products and production. The popular upsurge of 1905 was unprecedented. But of course it did not emerge from nowhere. The writings and speeches of Bal Gangadhar Tilak and his associate had done much to prepare the way. Tilak reached out to the masses through popular festivals. He transformed the traditional Ganapati Utsav into a public celebration where patriotic ideas could be spread. Later he inaugurated a Shivaji festival for the same purpose. In 1906 Bengal honored the great Maratha as a national hero. The swadeshi movement quickly gathered force. Bonfires of British cloth demonstrated the peoples` determination not to rely on foreign products. The sale of English goods fell dramatically as Bombay mills worked overtime to meet the demand for swadeshi textiles. It became a matter of pride to wear coarse dhotis woven on local handlooms rather than fashionable Manchester cottons. Student volunteers encouraged people to use Indian products. Popular enthusiasm was sustained by songs written by Rabindranath Tagore and others. Bankim chandra chatterjee`s `vande mataram` became a national anthem, and opening words a sort of battle cry. The swadeshi movement gave tremendous inputs to Indian industry. Beginnings were made in the manufacturer of swadeshi salt, sugar matches and other products. On a larger scale, the movement gave a stimulus to Prafullachandra Rays`s bengal chemical works. This action encouraged Jamshedji Tata of Bombay to open his famous steel plant in Bihar. At the same time, Indian labor took its first real steps towards organization. A series of strikes in Calcutta and other places demonstrated that the workingman was growing weary of exploitation

The Indian National Army, I.N.A or Azad Hind Fauj was the army of Arzi Hukumat-e-Azad Hind (The Provisional Government of Free India). It was an armed force which was formed during World War II by Indian nationalists and prisoners of war. It progressed with the aim to overthrow the British Raj and win independence. The INA was initially formed under Mohan Singh, the captain in the 1/14th Punjab Regiment in the British Army. However, the first INA under Mohan Singh collapsed and finally it was revived under the leadership of Subhash Chandra Bose. Indian National Army emerged along with Mahatma Gandhi`s peaceful resistance movement within India. In contrast to Mahatma Gandhi, Bose advocated a more aggressive confrontation with the British authorities. The concept of an armed force fighting to overthrow the British Raj in colonial India with Japanese assistance originated within the Indian independence movement. INA was formed during the first world war when the Ghadar Party and the nascent rudiment of the Indian Independence League planned to rebel in the British Indian Army from the Punjab through Bengal to Hong Kong. But this plan ultimately failed after the information was leaked to British Intelligence. During the Second World War, the plan to fight the British found revival and number of leaders and movements were initiated. These included “liberation armies” formed in and with the help of Italy, Germany as well as in South-east Asia. Thus in South East Asia the concept of the Indian National Army emerged. It was supported by the Japanese 15th army and led by Subhash Chandra Bose. Indian National Army had many valued freedom fighters, who helped in the battles. They all had a brilliant background and fought for a similar cause, freedom of India. The INA freedom fighters were from every sphere ranging from barristers to plantation workers.. The revival of the Indian National Army was done by Subhas Chandra Bose. In 1943 he reached Singapore and assumed leadership of INA. Thus with his motivation and determination INA doubled in strength and local civilians joined. Most of the people who joined had no prior military experience and thus to ensure a well-trained army, Bose established an Officers Training School for INA officers and the Azad School for the civilian volunteers Many youth were also sent to Imperial Military Academy in Japan for advanced training. Every soldier were required to spend about six to eight hours of training daily. The training included physical training, army drill and handling arms such as rifles, pistols, hand grenades and bayonets. The soldiers also attended lectures of Indian and world history and military subjects like map reading as well as signaling.

Khilafat Movement (1919-1924) was a significant Islamic movement in India during the British rule. This was an attempt by the Indian Muslim community to unite together in support of the Turkish Empire ruled by the Khalifa, which was attacked by European powers. The Muslims considered the Khalifa as the custodian of Islam. They simply could not digest his dethronement. Under the leadership of prominent Muslim leaders, notable one being Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, they launched the Khilafat Movement in most parts of North India. The Khilafat Movement, aimed against the British government, received the support of Mahatma Gandhi, who related his Non Cooperation Movement with it. The main objective behind this move was to enlist the support of the Muslim community into his movement, which addressed the issue of ‘Swaraj’ (Self-Government). By mid-1920 the Khilafat leaders assured full support to the non-violent methods of Gandhi, which facilitated the establishment of a united front of Hindus and Muslims against the British government. This combined force formed a major threat to the British rule. The Khilafat Movement however did not last long. Owing to some violent incidents in the country which resulted in the deaths of many Indian and British people, Mahatma Gandhi called off his Non Cooperation Movement. This was a major jolt to the Khilafat Movement. The movement received its final blow in March 1924, when the original Khilafat movement in Turkey was abolished following the Islamic country’s conversion from a Sultanate empire to a Republic.

The Civil Disobedience Movement led by M K Gandhi, in the year 1930 was an important milestone in the history of Indian Nationalism. There are three distinct phases that mark the development of Indian Nationalism. In the first phase, the ideology of the moderates dominated the political scenario. This was followed by the prominence of the extremist ideologies. In the third phase of Indian Nationalism the most significant incident was the rise of MK Gandhi, popularly known as Mahatma Gandhi, to power as the leader of Indian National Movements. Under his spirited guidance, the National Movements of the country took shape. The Indians learnt how apparently philosophical tenets like non violence and passive resistance, could be used to wage political battles. The programs and policies adopted in the movements spearheaded by Gandhi reflected his political ideologies of ahimsa and satyagraha. While the Non-Co-Operation Movement was built on the lines of non violent non co operation, the essence of The Civil Disobedience Movement was defying of the British laws. Through his leadership to the National Movements, he not only buttressed his political stance but also played a crucial role in unification of the country, awakening of the masses, and bringing politics within the arena of the common man.

Factors Leading to the Civil Disobedience Movement

The prevalent political and social circumstances played a vital role in the launching of the Civil Disobedience Movement. The Simon Commission was formed by the British Government that included solely the members of the British Parliament, in November 1927, to draft and formalize a constitution for India. The chairmanship of the commission rested with Sir John Simon, who was a well known lawyer and an English statesman. Accused of being an ‘All-White Commission’, the Simon Commission was rejected by all political and social segments of the country. In Bengal, the opposition to the Simon Commission assumed a massive scale, with a hartal being observed in all corners of the province on February 3rd, 1928. On the occasion of Simon’s arrival in the city, demonstrations were conducted in Calcutta. In the wake of the boycott of the recommendations proposed by Simon Commission, an All-Party Conference was organized in Bombay in May of 1928. Dr MA Ansari was the president of the conference. Motilal Nehru was given the responsibility to preside over the drafting committee, appointed at the conference to prepare a constitution for India. Barring the Indian Muslims, The Nehru Report was endorsed by all segments of the Indian society. The Indian National Congress pressurized the British government to accept all the parts the Nehru Report, in December 1928. At the Calcutta Session of the Indian National Congress held in December, 1928, the British government was warned that if India was not granted the status of a dominion, a Civil Disobedience Movement would be initiated in the entire country. Lord Irwin, the Governor General, after a few months, declared that the final objective of the constitutional reforms was to grant the status of a dominion to India. Following this declaration, Gandhi along with other national leaders requested the Governor General to adopt a more liberal attitude in solving the constitutional crisis. A demand was made for the release of the political prisoners and for holding the suggested Round Table Conference for reflecting on the problems regarding the constitution of the country. None of the efforts made by the Congress received any favorable response from the British government. The patience of the Indian masses were wearing out. The political intelligentsia of the country was sure that the technique of persuasion would not be effective with the British government. The Congress had no other recourse but to launch the Civil Disobedience Movement. In Bardoli, the peasants had already taken to satyagraha under the guidance of Sardar Patel in the year 1928. Their non tax agitations were partially successful. The Congress took the decision to use the non violent weapon of satyagraha on a nation wide scale against the government.

The Launch of the Civil Disobedience Movement

MK Gandhi was urged by the Congress to render his much needed leadership to the Civil Disobedience Movement. On the historic day of 12th March 1930, Gandhi inaugurated The Civil Disobedience Movement by conducting the historic Dandi Salt March, where he broke the Salt Laws imposed by the British Government. Followed by an entourage of seventy nine ashramites, Gandhi embarked on his march from his Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi that is located on the shores of the Arabian Sea. On 6th April 1930, Gandhi with the accompaniment of seventy nine satyagrahis, violated the Salt Law by picking up a fistful of salt lying on the sea shore. They manually made salt on the shores of Dandi. Dandi Salt March had an immense impact on the entire nation. Each and every corner of the country was gripped in a unique fervor of nationalism. Soon this act of violation of the Salt Laws assumed an all India character. The entire nation amalgamated under the call of a single man, Mahatma Gandhi. There were reports of satyagrahas and instances of law violation from Bombay, Central and United Provinces, Bengal and Gujarat. The program of the Civil Disobedience Movement incorporated besides the breaking of the Salt Laws, picketing of shops selling foreign goods and liquor, bonfire of cloth, refusal to pay taxes and avoidance of offices by the public officers and schools by the students. Even the women joined forces against the British. Those from orthodox families did not hesitate to respond to the call of the Mahatma. They took active part in the picketing exercises. Perturbed by the growing popularity of the movement, the British government imprisoned Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru, in a bid to thwart it. Thus, the second struggle for attaining Swaraj launched by the Congress, under the able guidance of Mahatma, served the critical function of mobilizing the masses on a large scale against the British. In the March of 1930, Gandhi met with the Viceroy, Lord Irwin and signed an agreement known as the Gandhi-Irwin Pact. The two main clauses of the pact entailed; Congress participation in the Round Table Conference and cessation of The Civil Disobedience Movement. The Government of India released all satyagrahis from prison.

Renewal of the Civil Disobedience Movement

Gandhi attended The Second Round Table Conference in London accompanied by Smt. Sarojini Naidu. At this Conference, it was claimed by Mahatma Gandhi that the Congress represented more than eighty five percent of the Indian population. Gandhi’s claim was not endorsed by the British and also the Muslim representative. The Second Round Table Conference proved to be futile for the Indians and Gandhi returned to the country without any positive result. The political scene in India thereafter assumed an acute dimension. The Viceroy, Lord Willingdon, in the absence of Gandhi, adopted the policy of repression. The Gandhi-Irwin Pact was violated and the Viceroy took to the suppression of the Congress. The Conservative party, which was in power in England, complied with the decision to assume a repressive stance against the Congress and the Indians. The Congress was held responsible by the government to have instigated the ‘Red Shirts’ to participate in The Civil Disobedience Movement, led by Khan Abdul Ghaffar and provoking the cultivators of U.P to refuse to pay land revenue. Adding to this was the serious economic crisis that took hold of the country. Under such circumstances, the resumption of The Civil Disobedience Movement was inevitable. The Congress Working Committee took the decision to restart The Civil Disobedience Movement, as the British government was not prepared to relent. Gandhi resumed the movement in January 1932 and appealed to the entire nation to join in. The Viceroy was also informed of the stance assumed by the Congress. Four ordinances were promulgated by the government to deal with the situation. The police was given the power to arrest any person, even on the basis of mere suspicion. Sardar Patel, the President of Congress and Gandhi were arrested, along with other Congressmen. The second phase of The Civil Disobedience Movement lacked the organization that marked its first phase. Nonetheless the entire nation put up a tough fight and the movement continued for six months. Gandhi commenced his twenty one days of fast on May 8th, 1933, to make amends for the sins committed against the untouchables by the caste Hindus. The Civil Disobedience Movement was suspended, when Mahatma Gandi withdrew mass satyagraha on July 14th 1933. The movement ceased completely on April 7th 1934. Although The Civil Disobedience Movement failed to achieve any positive outcome, it was an important juncture in the history of Indian independence. The leadership of Mahatma Gandhi had a beneficial impact. The warring factions within the Congress united under the aegis of The Civil Disobedience Movement, led by Mahatma Gandhi. Satyagraha was put on a firm footing through its large scale usage in the movement. Last but not the least India rediscovered its inherent strength and confidence to crusade against the British for its freedom.

Western explorer Vasco – d – Gama discovered a new sea route to South India from Europe. Portugal’s made a note of India and stated coming to India on business and religious expansion purposes. Britishers among others wanted to increase business with India. East India company of U.K. (Great Britain) stated major business ventures with India and within India. To protect their business they brought British troops to India. East India Company got involved in local politics and fights of small Indian kingdoms of the Indian subcontinent. They started political aggressions and take-over. East India Company of U.K. was taken over by the British government due to their lack of accountability despite full liberty they enjoyed in Indian operations. Britishers started from taking over Calcutta and west Bengal to South India and Tipu sultan. Over a period of time much powerful Independent kinddom fell under the British rule in spite of their brave struggles. One of the last to fall was the Marathas. India became a colonial subject country of the British crown with most of the India under the rule of the Viceroy and the British administration nominated and controlled by the British government and the British crown. Only a very small fraction remained under Portugal authority. French and Portuguese were defeated and their colonies taken over by Britishers. However a handful of Portuguese colonies (very small fraction of India) remained in Portuguese hand till even after the Indian Independence. The first armed struggle for independence of India in the year 1957 which the British historians call the great mutiny of 1957 was fought by many powerful Indian kingdoms that were colonialized by the foreigners and some Indian troops who revolted against their British rulers. British handled the year 1957′s freedom struggle with a very heavy hand and were able to subdue the freedom fighters. Political invasions of the British also proved to be an economical aggression where the Indian wealth started going over to the Britishers during the Industrial revolution and other times. Britishers brought trains, telegraphs etc. to India for their convenience of ruling India. But Indian economy was in shambles and U.K. getting better and better in wealth and economy through the economic victimization of Indians and India. Britishers had to leave India in 1947 in response to the Indian struggles for independence. India became independent in 1947. In 1950 India became a democratic independent republic. Since 1950 India is ruled by the democratic government of the Indians that is elected democratically by the Indian citizens.

No not yet India has successfully integrated with global economy, despite considerable improvement in policies and performance in recent years, international comparisons suggest that India’s progress in global integration has been modest and its level of integration remains low. India is still not attracting a level of attention from foreign investors commensurate ith its size and economic potential nor is its level of engagement in world trade keeping pace with that of the more dynamic developing countries – especially the countries in East Asia that appear the most relevant comparators. This is of concern because the pace and level of integration are found to be empirically associated with economic growth and there are good theoretical reasons to expect integration and growth to be mutually enhancing Since the balance of payments crisis of early 1991 the Indian authorities have conducted what has been in many respects a strikingly successful macroeconomic stabilization and structural reform program. A critical element of this program has been a decisive move from the inward-oriented economic strategy that prevailed over the first 40 years of independence towards an outward-oriented one that seeks to emulate the dynamic experience of the East Asian countries and greatly expand the benefits the Indian economy draws from interaction with the world economy. Potentially the most important way that integration, meaning participation in international markets for goods, services, capital, and labor, can help enhance economic performance is by raising productivity through access to new technologies, ideas or products, or through the bracing effect of competition with world class rivals. Another is by improving resource allocation and welfare by being able to buy and sell products at world prices according to comparative advantage. A third is by expanding the availability and lowering the cost of resources for investment by broader access to foreign savings.The theoretical links between integration and growth are illustrated by a growing body of empirical work. The World Bank’s “Global Economic Prospects and the DevelopingCountries, 1996″ presents evidence that developing countries with the most rapid pace of integration in 1984-93 also experienced a median rate of per capita GDP growth three percentage points greater than those with the slowest pace, while a study by Sachs and Warner (1995) indicates that countries with open policy regimes experienced a similar growth premium over countries with closed regimes.

 As per My (student) point of view I will analyze society of India to be very technical in the field of Information technology and Computers. Let’s first know how and when Computers entered in India. Computer Society of India was established in the year 1965 is today the largest IT professionals Society in India. The purposes of the Society are scientific and educational directed towards the advancement of the theory and practice of computer science, computer engineering and technology, systems science and engineering, information processing and related arts and sciences. It shall endeavor to: Promote interchange of information, in these disciplines and sub-disciplines, amongst the specialists and between specialists and the public. Encourage and assist the professionals engaged in these fields to maintain the integrity and competence of the profession and Foster a sense of partnership amongst the professionals, engaged in these fields. Keeping in mind the interest of the IT professionals & computer users, CSI works towards, making the profession an area of choice amongst all sections of the society. The promotion of Information Technology as a profession is the top priority of CSI today. To fulfill this objective, the CSI regularly organizes conferences, conventions, lectures and gives various awards. And at the same time it also ensures that regular training and skill updating are organized for the IT professionals. CSI also works towards a global approach, by seeking out alliances with organizations overseas that may be willing to come forward and participate in such activities. CSI also helps governments in formulating IT strategy & planning.

Financial Challenges

The Right to Education Act is already plagued with various financial hurdles and challenges. The fiscal burden is to be shared between the center and the states in the ratio of 55 : 45 and 90 : 10 for the North-Eastern States. This project is going to involve funds to the tune of Rs. 15,000 crores. Many states have already voiced their inability to mobilize funds and entered into a dispute with the center. Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Punjab and many states have expressed that they would not be able to implement the Act in the absence of funds from the center. Orissa in fact wants the same status enjoyed by the North Eastern states with respect to the Act. The success as far is the financial issues are concerned largely depends upon the center-state cooperation.The ambitious project is already falling short of around Rs.7.000 crores in the very first year itself.Since the Act involves improving the infrastructure of schools, training teachers, creating more facilities besides the manifold increase in intake, huge finances would be involved and it is difficult to envisage how the economics of it all will be worked out.

Challenge to Find Qualified Teachers

The dearth of good and qualified teachers is going to be one of the most crucial challenges faced in implementing the act. In the absence of competent teachers who are considered the pillars of education, it would be next to impossible for the Act to realistically achieve its goals. It is a fact that at any given point, about 25% teachers are on leave in India and a majority of them are unable to do full justice to their professions due to a myriad of reasons.As it is evident from the Act that school drop outs and others would be brought back into the education stream again, it would entail hiring almost double the number of teachers. It would be a challenge to find quality teachers without any performance based salaries or any incentives. The salary mechanism will need some serious revisions and the disparities removed before any influx of efficient teachers can take place. It is going to be a challenge to bridge the gap even by introducing teacher’s training programs.According to a teacher of a reputed school in Delhi, there are hundreds of students in one class and there is a huge gap between the training imparted to teachers and what they practice on ground.Our HRD Minister himself has acknowledged that there is a shortage of about five lakh teachers. In the face of this, how will it fulfill its promise of providing quality education to all? It is going to be a huge challenge.

Challenge to provide Infrastructure

Will we get better schools? In a survey on ‘Elementary Education in India’, conducted by the National University of Educational Planning and Administration (NUEPA), it has been found that almost half of the recognized elementary schools in the country do not have separate toilet for girls. This goes out to prove and depict the sorry state that our schools are in. It is going to be a challenge to provide the requisite infrastructure that the Act expects.The Act demands that the building of all the schools should be weather proof According to the Act there should be one teacher for every 30 students. The survey has come up with dismal details in this regard. There are 5.79 million teachers teaching in the elementary schools currently and each school has an average of 4.5 teachers. The Act suggests barrier free entries for all the schools whereas presently, only about 40% of the schools have ramps.Basic facilities like access to drinking water is also lacking in many schools. The Act stipulates a play ground for every school. Looking at the current scenario it looks like it is going to be extremely challenging to provide the necessary infrastructure and that too with an increased intake of teachers and students The other major infrastructure challenge will be to establish a balance between Centre and State. Several regulatory measures can only be taken after individual inputs from state governments. There are no clear demarcations between the responsibilities of the center and state and it would be a challenge to work out the details.

Challenge to provide Equality and Quality in Education

HRD Minister has paved the way for huge challenges ahead by promising quality education to all. It has already been seen that it will be difficult to do so in the absence of good teachers. The Act says that no student would be dropped from school or not passed till the age of 14. With the mix of such students in class, it would be very difficult for the teachers to ensure quality. Substantial efforts would be required to maintain and impart quality education.Teachers and the supporting staff of schools will find it tough to remain impartial and treat all the students on an equal footing without any biases. Besides this, they will also be responsible for encouraging harmony amongst the varying strata of students.

Challenge to Enforce 25% Quota for Weaker Sections

We Can Study Together Now! It remains to be seen whether this clause to reserve 25% of seats for weaker sections by Private unaided schools will turn out to be a boon or a bane. On one hand the Act aims at removing this bipolarity in education and on the other it is feared that interfering in the functioning of private schools will have an adverse effect on the quality of education. These institutes claim to have brought some semblance of order to the education system in our country.It is going to be a challenge for the government to work out modalities which can strike a balance between a six year old child who has just entered school and a child who has been to a school since the age of 3. It will be a cultural and social shock for him. Since it will be mandatory not to fail any child till standard 8th, the classes would be full and ensuring quality education in the light of this a huge challenge. The biggest challenge in this is going to be the definition of weaker sections. This is where malpractices can creep in. A monitoring mechanism will also have to be set up to ensure its fair implementation. What will happen when a child belonging to the quota category wants to change school in higher classes? Logistics need to be worked out for a smooth transition there also. Will this help in eradicating the socioeconomic divide? It is tough task to bring together children from varying economic and social backgrounds on the same platform. It would indeed be challenging for the teachers to maintain equilibrium and create an environment for them to blend together.

Challenge to Bring Child Laborers to Schools

Will we get a chance to go to school? Now that right to education has become a fundamental right of each and every child , it should also be applicable to those thousands of students who are being used as child laborers and have been denied education till now.There are more than 12 million children in India who are engaged in child labor and these are just official figures. Unless and until a special provision is made in the Act, it would be challenging to bring back these children to school.These are some of the problems that have littered the path but our HRD Minister is quite confident of overcoming these challenges and propel India towards even greater heights.This Act has put India in the same league as U.S.A. and 130 other Nations as far as the right to education is concerned. Nothing can change overnight but there is a ray of hope. A hope that if all these hurdles and shortcomings are overcome and the loopholes removed, then this will become the road leading towards an Educated India, a Proud India.

NP Complete Problem:-  A problem P or equivalently its language L1 is said to be NP complete if the following two conditions are satisfied: The problem L2 is in the class NP. For any problem L2 in NP, there is a polynomial time reduction of L1 to L2. NP Hard Problem:- A problem L is said ti be NP – Hard if for any problem L1 in NP, there is a polynomial time reduction of L1 to L. In other words, a problem L is hard if only condition (b) of NP – completeness is satisfied. We can conclude form the definitions that every NP – complete problem L must be NP  – Hard & additionally should satisfy the condition that L is an NP – class problem. In general, the process of establishing a problem as NP – complete is a two step process. The  first step, which in  most of the cases is quite simple, constitutes of  guessing possible solutions of the instances, one instance at a time, of the problem & then guess actually is a solution or not. The second step involves designing a polynomial time algorithm which reduces instances of an already known NP – complete problem to instances of the problem, which is intended to be shown as NP – complete.

Explain the general steps in establishing NP- completeness proof of given problem:  Use a heuristic. If you can’t quickly solve the problem with a good worst come time, maybe you can come up with a method for solving a reasonable fraction of the common cases. Solve the problem approximately instead of exactly. A lot of the time it is possible to come up with a provably fast algorithm, that doesn’t solve the problem exactly but comes up with a solution you can prove is close to right. Use an exponential time solution anyway. If you really have to solve the problem exactly, you can settle down to writing an exponential time algorithm and stop worrying about finding a better solution. Choose a better abstraction. The NP – complete abstract problem you’re trying to solve presumably comes from ignoring some of the seemingly unimportant details of a more complicated real world problem. Perhaps some of those details shouldn’t have been ignored, and make the difference between what you can and can’t solve.

  CASH TOOL: CASE tools are to improve routine work through the use of automated support. CASE tools can be classifies as upper CASE tools and lower CASE tools. Upper CASE tools: Upper CASE tools primarily help analysts and designers.  It allows the analyst to create and modify the system design. All the information about the project is stored in an encyclopedia called CASE repository, a large collection of records, elements, diagrams, screens, reports and other information. Analysis reports may be produced using repository information to show the design is incomplete or contains errors. Lower CASE tools:  Lower CASE tools are used more often by programmers and workers who must implement the systems designed using upper CASE tools. They are used to generate computer source code. Eliminating the need for programming the system.

S/W Quality: Quality of software is a conformance to requirements. Set of requirements is very wide for example readability, fault tolerance. The Nine attributes of software quality are : Understandability I is possessed by a software product if the purpose of the product is clear. This goes further than just a statement of purpose – all of the design and user documentation must be clearly written so that it is easily understandable. A software product possesses the characteristic completeness to the extent that all of its parts are present and each of its parts are fully developed. This means that if the code calls a sub routine from an external library, the software package must provide reference to that library and all required parameters must be passed. A software product possesses the characteristic conciseness to the extent that no excessive information is present. This is important where memory capacity is limited. And it is important to reduce lines of code to a minimum.A software product possesses the characteristic portability to the extent that it can be operated easily and well on multiple computer configuration. Portability can mean both between different hardware setups such as running on a Mac as well as a PC and between different operating systems such as running on both Mac OS X and GNU/Linux. A software product possesses the characteristic consistency to the extent that it contains uniform notation. Symbology an terminology within itself. A software product possesses the characteristic maintainability to the extent that it facilitates updating to satisfy new requirements. Thus the software product which is maintainable should be well documented. Not complex, and should have spare capacity for memory usage and processor speed. A software product possesses the characteristic testability  to the extent that it facilitates the establishment of acceptance criteria and supports evaluation of its performance. Such a characteristic must be built in during the design phase if the product is to be easily testable a complex design leads to poor testability.

Mobile S/W Engineering  If an application that is developed for computers can also run on mobile devices, then the entire paradigm of application usage changes as it enables the user to run application from wherever he is . Following steps are followed in development of any mobile application. The first step is to install J2SE SDK J2ME wireless toolkit runs on java platform. The second step is to install J2ME wireless toolkit. It users the concept of projects rather than files. At end of the creation of the project, you have an MIDP (Mobile Information Device  profile) suite. Let us create new project. Let the title be project1’ Along with the title of the project, MIDlet class name should also be given. Let it be projectlet. Once these names are confirmed. The process of  creating the project project1 commences. As the result, a directory titled project1 will be created in which the following subdirectories will be present.Bin,Lib,Res,Sr. A compiled MIDlet suite (a. jar file ) and the MIDlet suite descriptor (a. jar file ) are created in the bin directory. The source code will be in Src directory. Apart from the above mentioned subdirectories. The following subdirectories are also created. Tmplass,Tmplib. View the below steps to guide you through the wireless application development process. The steps below provide toss, kits and papers to help build compelling wireless. Voice. J2ME and offline applications.

  Cycloramic complexity  :Cyclomatic complexity is the most widely used member of a class of a class of static software metrics. Cyclomatic complexity may be considered a broad measure of soundness and confidence for a program. This measure provides a single ordinal number that can be compared to th complexity of other programs. Cyclomatic complexity is often referred to simply as program complexity. Or as McCabe’s complexity. It is often used in concert with other software metrics. A one of the more widely accepted software metrics, it is intended to be independent of language and language format. The Cyclomatic complexity of a software module id calculated from a connected graph of the module (that shows the topology of control flow within the program):

Cyclomatic complexity(CC) = E – N + p

Where,

E =the number of edges of the graph.

N =the number of nodes of the graph

P =the number of connected components (like loops in a graph)

To actually count these elements requires establishing a counting convention (tools to count cyclomatic complexity contain these conventions). The complexity number is generally considered to provide a stronger measure of a program’s structural complexity than is provided by counting lines of code.

Formal methods are particular kind f mathematically based techniques for the specification, development and verification of software and hardware systems. The use of formal methods for software and hardware design is motivated by the expectation that, as in other engineering disciplines, performing appropriate mathematical analyses can contribute to the reliability and robustness of a design. However, the high cost of using formal methods means that they are usually only used in the development of high integrity systems. Where safety or security is important. Formal methods can be used at a number of levels: Level 0 : Formal specification may be undertaken and then a program developed from this informally. This has been dubbed formal methods lite. This may be the most cost-effective option in many cases. Level 1 : Formal development and formal verification may be used to produce a program in a more formal manner. For example. Proofs of properties or refinement from the specification to a program may be undertaken. This may be most appropriate in high integrity systems involving safety or security. Level 2 : Theorem provers may be used to undertake fully formal machine checked proofs. This can be very expensive and is only practically worthwhile if the cost of mistakes is extremely high (e.g., in critical parts of microprocessor design.) styles of formal methods may be roughly classified as follows: Specification Formal methods may be used to give a description of the system to be developed at whatever level(s) of detail desired. This formal description can be used to guide further development activities (see following sections): additionally it can be used to verify that the requirements for the system being developed have been completely and accurately specified. The need for formal specification systems has been noted for years. In the ALGOL 60 Report, John Backus presented a formal notation for describing programming language syntax (later named a Backus normal form or Baucus –Nauru form (BNF)) : Backus also described the need for a notation for describing programming language semantics. The report promised that a new notation, as definitive as BNF, would appear in the near future: it never appeared. Development Once a formal specification has been developed, the specification may be used as a guide while the concrete system is developed (i.e. realized in software and/or hardware) Examples: If the formal specification is in an operational semantics. The observed behavior behavior of the concrete system can be compared with the behavior of the specification (which itself should be executable of simulate able ). Additionally, the operational commands of the specification may be amenable to direct translation into executable code. If the  formal specification is in and axiomatic semantics, the preconditions and post conditions of the specification may become assertions in the excitable code. Verification Once a formal specification has been developed, the specification may be used as the basis for proving properties of the specification(and hopefully by inference the developed system). The field of formal methods has its critics. Handwritten proofs of correctness need significant time (and thus money) to produce, with limited utility other than assuring correctness. This makes formal methods more likely to be used in fields where it is possible to perform automated proofs using software. Or in cases where the cost of a fault is high. Example: in railway engineering and aerospace engineering. Undetected errors may cause death. So formal methods are more popular in this field than in other application areas.

A software development life cycle model is either a descriptive of prescriptive characterization of how software is or should be developed. A descriptive model descries the history of how a particular software system was developed Descriptive models may be used as the basis for understanding and improving software development processes or for building empirically grounded prescriptive models.

System Initiation/Planning: where do systems come from? In most situations, new feasible systems replace or supplement existing information processing mechanisms whether they were previously automated, manual, or informal.

Requirement Analysis and Specification : identifies the problems a new software system is suppose to solve, its operational capabilities, its desired performance characteristics, and the resource infrastructure needed to support system operation and maintenance.

Architectural Design and Configuration Specification: defines the interconnection and resource interfaces between system subsystems, components, and modules in ways suitable for their detailed design and overall configuration management.

Component Implementation and Debugging: codifies the preceding specifications into operational source code implementations and validates their basic operation.

Software Integration and Testing: affirms and sustains the overall integrity of the software system architectural configuration through verifying the consistency and completeness of implemented modules, verifying the resource interfaces and interconnections against their specifications, and validating the performance of the system and subsystems against their requirements.

Software Maintenance: sustaining the useful operation of a system in its host/target environment by providing requested functional enhancements, repairs. Performance improvements, and conversions.

Accrual concept: The effects of transactions and other events are recognised when they occur (and not as cash or its equivalent is received or paid) and they are recorded in the accounting records and reported in the financial statements of the periods to which they relate. Example: Company A has received cash of $40,000 from his customers. However, the company actually has done all work satisfactorily and the customers have acknowledged the work done which the company can billed for another $20,000. Furthermore, the expense for the $20,000 work-done has been taken up into the books of account. Question:    Should the company just close their accounting book by presently its income as $40,000 for the cash received or should it be $40,000+$20,000 =$60,000 Answer:     Based on this concept, the company has actually completed all work done, also, the work done have being acknowledged by the customers, hence income of $60,000 should be taken up and not just the cash received.

Materially concept: Omissions or misstatements of items are material if they could, individually or collectively, influence the economic  decisions of users taken on the basis of the financial statements. Materiality depends on the size and nature of the omission or misstatement judged in the surrounding circumstances. The size or nature of the item, or a combination of both, could be the determining factor Example: Company A bought 6 months supplies of stationery costing $600. Question: Should the company spread the cost of this stationery for 6 months by expensing off $100 per month to the Income Statement ? Answer : Based on this concept, as the amount is so small or immaterial, it can be expensed off in the current month instead of tediously expensing them for the next 6 months

Conservatism concept: Conservatism concept are recognize revenue only when they are reasonably certain or recognize expenses as soon as they are reasonably possible. This concept basically does not encourage the anticipation of recognizing income when it is not certain. It prefers that any expenses that can be reasonably ascertain should be taken up. Example:Company A has completed 50% of a project. Based on its costing and other evidence, it knows that the project is going to incur losses.Question: Should the company only take up its losses at the completion of the project. Answer: Based on prudence concept, the company should quickly in its financial year take up this losses instead of waiting for the 100% completion of the project.

Consistency concept: Once a business has adopted on one accounting method, it should use the same method for all subsequent events of the same character unless it has sound reason to change This concept advocates that there must be consistent treatment for similar items within each accounting period and from one period to the next. Example: Company A has received annual rebates from its supplier approximately to $1 million. Every year, it is the company’s accounting policy to net these rebates against the purchases from the suppliers. But for this year, this is taken up as income. Question: Is this correct ?Answer: Under the consistency concept, this is not correct as every year the Company A has been taking these rebates against the purchases but all of a sudden, it changes its accounting policy by taking up as revenue.

The term “Flow” means change and, therefore, the term “Flow of Fund” means “Change of Fund” or “Change in Working Capital” In other words, any income or decrease in working capital means “Flow of Fund”. In business, several transactions take place, some of these transactions increase the funds while others decrease the funds. Some may not make any change in the fund position. In case a transaction results in increase of fund, it will be termed as a “source of fund”. For example, if the fund are Rs 10,000 and on account of a business transaction, say, issue of shares, they become Rs 15,000 ,  ‘Issue of shares’ will be taken as a source of fund. In case a transaction results in decrease of fund it will be taken as an application or use of funds. For example, if the fund are Rs. 10,000 and on account of a transaction say, purchase of furniture of Rs. 5,000, they stand reduced to 5,000 the purchase of furniture will be taken as an “application of fund” . In case a transaction does not make any change in the fund position that exited just before the happening of the transaction, it is said that it is a non-fund transaction. For example, if the fund are Rs 10,000 and a fixed asset of Rs 5,000 is purchased by issuing shares of Rs 5,000 the fund position will not change, and therefore, this transaction will be taken as a non-fund transaction.

Uses of Fund Flow Statement

Fund flow statement helps the financial analyst in having a more detailed analysis and understanding of changes in the distribution of resources between two balance sheet dates. In case such a study it required regarding the future working capital position of the company, a projected funds flow statement can be prepared. The uses of a funds flow statement can be put as follows.

In explains the financial consequences of business operations. Fund flow statement provides a ready answer to so many conflicting situation. Such as:

(a)  Why the liquid positions of the business is becoming more and more unbalanced in spite of business is becoming more and more profits?

(b)   How was it possible to distribute dividends in excess of current

earnings or in the presence of a net loss for the period?

(c)  How the business could have good liquid position in spite of

business making losses or acquisition of fixed assets?

(d)  Where have the profits gone ?

Definite answer to these questions will help the financial analyst in edvising his employer/client regarding directing of fund to those channels which will be most profitable for the business.

It answers intricate queires. The financial analyst can find out answer to a

number of intricate questions.

(a)  What is the overall creditworthiness of the enterprise ?

(b)  What are the sources of repayments of the loans taken ?

(c)  How much funds are generated through normal business operations ?

(d)  In what way the management has utilized the funds in the past and what are going to be likely uses of funds ?

It acts as an instrument for allocation of resources. A projected fund flow statement will help analyst in finding out how the management is going to allocate the scarce resources for meeting the productive requirements of the business. The use of fund should be phased in such an order that the available resources are put to the best use of the enterprise. The funds should be managed in such a way that the business is in a position to make payment of interest and loan installments as per the agreed schedule.

It is a test as to effective or otherwise use of working capital. Fund flow statement is a test of effective use of working capital by the management during a particular period. The adequacy or inadequacy of working capital will tell the financial analyst about the possible steps that the management should take for effective use of surplus working capital or make arrangements in case of working capital.

Economy Order Quantity’ (EOQ) is essentially an accounting formula that determines the point at which the combination of order costs and inventory carrying costs are the least. The result is the most cost effective quantity to order.  In purchasing this is known as the order quantity, in manufacturing it is known as the production lot size. While EOQ may not apply to every inventory situation, most organizations will find it beneficial in at least some aspect of their operation.  Anytime you have repetitive purchasing or planning of an item, EOQ should be considered. Obvious applications for EOQ are purchase-to-stock distributors and make-to-stock manufacturers, however, make-to-order manufacturers should also consider EOQ when they have multiple orders or release dates for the same items and when planning components and sub-assemblies.  Repetitive buy maintenance, repair, and operating (MRO) inventory is also a good application for EOQ.  Though EOQ is generally recommended in operations where demand is relatively steady, items with demand variability such as seasonality can still use the model by going to shorter time periods for the EOQ calculation.  Just make sure your usage and carrying costs are based on the same time period. Doesn’t EOQ conflict with Just-In-Time?  While I don’t want to get into a long discussion on the misconceptions of what Just-In-Time (JIT) is, I will address the most common misunderstanding in which JIT is assumed to mean all components should arrive in the exact run quantities “just in time” for the production run.  JIT is actually a quality initiative with the goal of eliminating wasted steps, wasted labor, and wasted cost. EOQ should be one of the tools used to achieve this. EOQ is used to determine which components fit into this JIT model and what level of JIT is economically advantageous for your operation.  As an example, let us assume you are a lawn equipment manufacturer and you produce 100 units per day of a specific model of lawn mower.  While it may be cost effective to have 100 engines arrive on your dock each day, it would certainly not be cost effective to have 500 screws (1 days supply) used to mount a plastic housing on the lawn mower shipped to you daily.  To determine the most cost effective quantities of screws or other components you will need to use the EOQ formula.

The determined of Economic Order Quantity (EOQ) formula is as follows:

While the calculation itself is fairly simple the task of determining the correct data inputs to accurately represent your inventory and operation is a bit of a project.  Exaggerated order costs and carrying costs are common mistakes made in EOQ calculations.  Using all costs associated with your purchasing and receiving departments to calculate order cost or using all costs associated with storage and material handling to calculate carrying cost will give you highly inflated costs resulting in inaccurate results from your EOQ calculation.  I also caution against using benchmarks or published industry standards in calculations.  I have frequently seen references to average purchase order costs of $100 to $150 in magazine articles and product brochures.  Often these references trace back to studies performed by advocacy agencies working for business that directly benefit from these exaggerated (my opinion) costs used in ROI calculations for their products or services.  I am not denying that some operations may have purchase costs in this range, especially if you are frequently re-sourcing, re-quoting, and/or buying from overseas vendors. However if your operation is primarily involved with repetitive buying from domestic vendors — which is more common — you’ll likely see your purchase order costs in the substantially lower $10 to $30 range. As you prepare to undertake this project keep in mind that even though accuracy is crucial, small variances in the data inputs generally have very little effect on the outputs.  The following breaks down the data inputs in more detail and gives insight into the aspects of each.

Industrial society came into existence when the number of factory workers exceeded the number of primary-industry workers. Primary industry is the type of economic activity that deals with the harvesting of raw materials. Included in that category are: farming, fishing, foresting, mining, and so forth. England was probably the first industrial society, but there is some reason to believe that the phenomenon occurred about the same time in Holland. Post-industrial society exists when more people are employed in the service industry than in secondary industry (manufacturing, etc.) and primary industry (farming, etc.) The United States was the first post-industrial society. This occurred around 1970. By the last census, slightly more than 7 of every 10 working Americans were occupied in the service industry. Post-industrial society, first of all, depends upon others to supply many of the products of secondary industry. This explains the imbalance in consumer trade. We export technology and intelligence for manufactured goods. Because of the advances made during the period when the U.S. was an industrial society, about two percent of the entire population now produces foor (primary industry) for the rest of the people. The key social institution in post-industrial society is education. Tertiary industry (which replaces secondary and primary industries as the major employer) includes the various fields of medicine; accounting, banking, and financial services; information development and transfer; communications; engineering research and development; legal services; and other areas that require personnel with AT LEAST college educations.

In this twenty-first century, multinational companies have become the central institutions of developing nations. The government of a country should be concerned about food security, industrial production and other commodities that the country needs for its citizens. These concerns encourage developing nations to implement transnational corporation to fulfill their necessities. Globalization connects people from all over the world, specifically, through advance in technology and transportation. Removal of trade barriers encourages multinational companies to start new branches in developing Although multinational companies have become ubiquitous in the developing world, there has always been an uncertainty about them, in both positive and negative ways. Some people think that globalization plays a major role in the progress of developing nations because of the presence of these companies. Definitely, they are not the basis for the progress of developing countries. Multinational companies’ presence has more serious negative impacts on developing countries’ labor rights, human health and economy. These global companies are profit minded and they search for cheap human power, exploiting laborers’ rights in developing countries, especially of women’s by giving them fewer wages and by misusing their rights. Thus, presence of multinational companies is promoting the existence of a callous environment for employees in third world nations. Next, in developing world, food selling companies are omnipresent, which creates a general perception among people that it will make life easier. Globalization leads multinational companies to promote consumerism. There are many fast food companies, such as Mc Donald’s and KFC, in the developing world that provide alternative foods and makes life easier. However, does anyone notice the consequences of this consumerism? People consider fast food easy, and become addicted to it, which is unhealthy. Multinational corporations promote a certain kind of consumerist culture and spread western lifestyle among the people of developing countries; 115 million people suffer from obesity-related problems as well. The consequences of obesity for adults are well known. Obesity increases mortality from many causes, including cardiovascular disease and cancer. As a result, fast food companies are not making life easier, but they are also making death easier and life miserable in developing countries. Finally, it is said that existence of multinational companies mitigates poverty in developing nations. Most of the countries are involved in free trade, and they exchange commodities with each other. As the trade barriers are reduced, the rich nations dump cheap products into poor countries, and the multinational companies act as catalysts for this process. Conversely, the process of globalization has exploited manufactures in developing countries, and has caused massive disruptions in living conditions. As multinational companies have emerged in developing countries, local producers have to compete with these large companies, adversely affecting the local economy. Moreover, these multinational companies also use the national resources of these developing nations such as natural resources, infrastructure and human power. For example, some companies are making furniture by destroying forests in developing countries, which devastates the natural environment and affects the local furniture producers as well. Globalization challenges the progress of developing nations by adversely affecting the life of labors, the nations’ health and economy. Multinational companies’ existence in third world nations has many drawbacks, which are often disregarded by people. As rich nations utilize developing countries resources, the present form of globalization must be changed and developing countries must free themselves from the grasp of multinational companies for real growth.

 Civil society is a domain parallel to but separate from the state. It is a realm where citizens associate according to their own interests and wishes. It is “the realm of organized social life that is voluntary, self-generating, largely self-supporting, and bound by a legal order or set of shared values.” Outside of their households, the members of society form a large variety of intermediary organizations for the purpose of safeguarding and promoting their interests. There is no unanimity on the question of which types of social organizations should fall within the scope of civil society. Yet, conventionally organizations that are considered to be parts of civil society include churches, neighborhood associations, private charities, grassroots groups and local clubs – all those social organizations that are open, voluntary, self-generating, autonomous from the State, and yet bound by a legal order. Civil society does include independent mass media and the broader field of autonomous cultural and intellectual activity. The Universities, theatres, film societies, publishing houses and the social think tanks are important components of civil society. In fine, it is an intermediary phenomenon standing between the private sphere and the State. Civil Society needs to be distinguished from the broader concept of ‘society’ in general, as it involves behaving and acting collectively in a public sphere, to express their interests, ideas and preferences to achieve collective goals and make demands on the state. Thus all of social life is not subsumed in civil society. Parochial society represented by individual and family life and inward-looking group activity such as religious worship, spirituality etc. does not fall within civil society. Similarly, economic society in the form of profit making enterprise of individual business firms is outside the scope of civil society. Also, civil society needs to be distinguished from political society represented, in a democracy, by political parties and campaign groups and organizations that primarily aspire for winning control of the state. Democracy and civil society are twins: they are integrally related to each other. A healthy liberal democracy needs the support of a public “that is organized for democracy, socialized to its norms and values, and committed not just to its myriad narrow interests but to larger, common civic end”. To quote Larry Diamond, “such a civil public is only possible with a vibrant ‘civil society’.” One has to trace back in this context to Alexis de Tocqueville whose classic writings on American politics laid the foundation of democracy-civil society nexus thesis. Tocqueville thought, America’s democracy was sustained by the richness and diversity of its voluntary associations. In his view, voluntary associations assisted in the development of democratic values such as trust, tolerance and compromise. New generations of neo-Tocquevillians, prominent among who is Robert Putnam, have, since the 1990s, revived the concept of civil society as the bedrock of democracy. Putnam’s work on the political development of the Italian regions – the prosperous North vis-à-vis the impoverished South – sought to explain superior institutional performance in the former in terms of flourishing ‘social capital’ which stands for “features of social organization such as trust, norms and networks”. The propensity of individuals to join private, voluntary associations, according to Putnam, contributes to the effectiveness of democracy because of its ‘internal’ and ‘external’ consequences. Internally, associations “install habits of cooperation, solidarity, and public spiritedness”. Externally, a dense network of secondary associations “contributes to effective social collaboration”. The Putnam thesis is simply this: where there is no social capital, democracy could not flourish. For the most comprehensive theoretical assessment of the virtues of civil society in the context of democratic transition and consolidation, one has to refer to Larry Diamond’s recent work on Developing Democracy. Civil society, in Diamond’s view, serves the “development, deepening and consolidation of democracy”. As Diamond explains the process, civil society provides the basis for the limitation of state power, supplements the role of parties in stimulating political participation, increases the political efficacy and skill of democratic citizens, educates the masses in democracy, structures multiple channels, beyond the political party, for articulating, aggregating, and representing interests, empowers the powerless to advance their interests, generates a wide range of cross-cutting interests, mitigates thereby the polarities of political conflict, recruits and trains new political leaders, develops techniques for conflict mediation and resolution, gives citizens respect for the state and positive engagement with it, and facilitates the spread of ideas essential for economic reform. Diamond has, however, laid down certain conditions that must be fulfilled for civil society to perform the democracy building functions. First, a stable democracy has a good prospect if civil society does not contain “maxima list, uncompromising interest groups or groups with anti-democratic goals and methods”. Second, another feature of a strong civil society is what Diamond has called the “level of organizational institutionalization”. As he argues, “where interests are organized in a structured, stable manner, bargaining and the growth of cooperative networks are facilitated”. Third, the other important requirement is the “internally democratic character” of organizations as defined by “decision-making, leadership selection, accountability and transparency”. Following Diamond’s presents, five distinct features of civil society which can be identified as under: Civil society is concerned with public ends rather than private ends.  Civil society and state are related to each other in such a way that it does not seek to win control over the state. To reform the structure of power rather than to take power themselves as organizations is the goal of civil society.  Civil society encompasses pluralism and diversity.  Any organization that seeks to monopolies power and occupy the political space as a monopolist disallowing all competitors, violates the pluralistic and market oriented nature of civil society. Civil society does not seek to represent the complete set of interests of a person or a community. This characteristic follows from what has been stated above. Profusion of different organizations and individuals having multiple organizational ties are clear signs of healthy civil society functioning.  Civil society, should distinguished from the more clearly democracy enhancing phenomenon of civic community. Putnam’s model of civil community along with the idea of social capital is both a broader and narrower concept than civil society: “broader, in that it encompasses all manner of associations; narrower in that it includes only associations structured horizontally around ties that are more or less mutual, cooperative, symmetrical, and trusting”. Putnam, like Tocqueville, has sensitized us to the importance of associational life in general; but civil society is a much more refined concept that distinguishes it from the much wider and more general arena of associational life. It needs to be emphasized, in this context, that “the key to constructing a civic community is not whether an organization has an explicitly civic (public) or political purpose.”

 The return of the state to political theory has been a marked feature of Marxist political theory. Most rigorous and sophisticated debates concerning the nature of the state took place in the decades of 1970’s and 1980’s before the decline of Marxism as a philosophical position in the aftermath of collapse of communism and rise of neo-liberalism as the ‘mainstream’ political theory. Most of these debates have revolved round the interpretations of the views of Marx and Engels. The presence of wide range of the Marxist theories can be related to the discontinuities and disjunction in their works on state resulting in the lack of coherence among the different Marxist interpretations. Neither Marx nor Engels presented a comprehensive, systematic and complete theory of state. As a result, the Marxists have been forced to theorise state through Marx and Engels’ fragmented and unsystematic series of philosophical reflections, contemporary history, and journalism and incidental remarks. These themes have been capable of independent theoretical interpretation and development. The lack of a grand theory of state in the writings of Marx and Engels also resulted in the emergence of different approaches in the Marxist theory regarding the nature of the state. Though they are often combined with varying degrees of consistency and mutual qualification, they are based on different assumptions, principles of exploitation and political implications. Thus we have a theoretical position which argues that state should be analysed as Lenin analysed it i.e. based upon Marxian political and economic analysis. There are others who emphasise the autonomous character of state to be found in the historical works of Marx and Engels. The classical theory of state as an instrument of class domination is crucially linked with the Marxist explanation of the materialist conception of history. In the German Ideology Marx and Engels saw the state as the epiphenomenon i.e. simple surface reflection of the system of property relations and resulting economic class struggles. Marx and Engels argued that the state develops within the social division of labour and is the form in which the ruling class asserts its common interest. The state remains the reflection of the economic base and also reflects the needs of the economy as well as the balance of economic class forces. Marx presented similar ideas in his work The Poverty of Philosophy while discussing the tenets of political economy. He argued that the relations of production are the real foundation on which rises a legal and political superstructure and to which correspond definite forms of social consciousness. The above trend of thought on the nature of the state and the correlation between economic substructure and political formations finds its most explicit expression in the famous formulation of the Communist Manifesto. Marx and Engels argued that ‘political power, properly so called is merely the organising power of one class for oppressing another’. Further, ‘the executive of the modern state is but a committee for managing the common affair of the whole affair of the whole bourgeoisie. This version of the Marxian theory of the state leads to its conceptualisation as being in origin and nature, in purpose and function, a class organ, an organisation for oppression of one class by another. Besides the official Marxism under the patronage of the erstwhile Soviet Union the contemporary western Marxists like William Domhoff and Fred Block, among others concurred with such a position. Significantly Marx in his historical works concerned with the concrete structure of the political conditions in France, Germany, Austria and Russia had put forward a conception of state that had life of its own, separated from civil society, with a bureaucracy that did not act in society’s interest, but in the private interests of the state itself. Such a situation arose either when there was a balance of class forces i.e. Bonapartist France and Bismarckian Germany or there was an absence of a dominant class i.e. Maternich State in Austria and Czarist State in Russia. The contemporary Marxists like Nicos Poulantzas, Hal Draper and Ralph Miliband have held that the relative autonomy of state, even if it is of high order, does not reduce its class character. The relative autonomy of state makes it possible for the state to play its class role in an appropriately flexible manner. If it really were the simple instrument of the ruling class it would be fatally inhibited in the performance of its role. State elite needs a measure of freedom in deciding how best to serve the existing social order. Very briefly, the fundamentals of the Marxian formulation of the state can be succinctly put in the words of Miliband, while the state does act, in Marxist terms, on behalf of the ruling class it does not for the most part act at its behest. The state is indeed a class state, the state of the ruling class, but it indeed must have that high degree of autonomy and independence, if it is to act as a class state. It follows that the notion of state merely as an instrument does reveal the crucial property of the state, namely its relative autonomy from the ruling propertied class and from civil society at large. The liberals have sought to explain the growing centrality of the state to the modern society by focusing upon the administrative, coercive and ideological functions of the state since the 1960’s. In the pluralist theory of state, the state has come to be viewed increasingly by the liberals as a political association distinct from the government that encompasses all public bodies and exercises impersonal authority on the basis of the assumption that it represents the permanent interests of the society, rising above the partisan interests. The liberal thinkers argue that the state is a neutral arbiter amongst competing groups and individuals in the society; it acts as an umpire or referee, capable of protecting each citizen from the encroachment of the fellow citizens. The pluralists have viewed the state as a neutral entity, acting in the interests of all and representing what can be called the common good or public interest. The central argument of the Pluralism is that political power is dispersed amongst a wide variety of social groups rather than an elite or ruling class. Under such an institutional understanding of the state its foremost function is considered to uphold order and provide social stability. The neo-pluralists such as Charles Lindblom and J.K. Galbraith have, however, argued that the advanced industrialised states are both more complex and less responsive to popular pressures than what the classical pluralists had assumed. While still holding the state as the custodian of common good or public interest they argue that it is impossible to portray all organisations as equally powerful since in a capitalist society business enjoys advantages which other groups clearly cannot rival. Pertinently although, the neo-pluralists do not view business as an ‘elite group’, capable of dictating to government in all areas, still less a ruling class’, they do concede that a liberal democracy is a ‘deformed polyarchy’ in which business usually exerts pre-eminent influence, especially over the economic agenda. New right ideas and theories have become increasingly influential in the last three decades. Despite drawing their theoretical fundamentals, like pluralists, from the classical liberalism, as initially expounded by Hobbes and Locke, the neo-liberals or libertarians express strong antipathy towards government intervention in economic and social life, emanating from the belief that the state is a parasitic growth which threatens both individual liberty and economic security. For them the state is no longer an impartial referee but has become a self-serving monster, a nanny or leviathan state, interfering in every aspect of life. New rights theorists have made an attempt of identify the forces that have led to the growth of state intervention and which, in their view, must be countered. In effect liberals increasingly treat the stale as governance. Such an institutional understanding of the state, however, does not allow us to explain the dissimilarity among the states in terms of their accumulation, articulation and exercise of political power.

Structural Functional approach is a form of systemic analysis which looks at political system as a coherent whole which influences and is in turn influenced by their environments. A political system is held together by the presence of legitimate force throughout the system.Almond relied upon Max Weber and Talcott Parsons in conceptualising the political system’s actions and turned to concepts like structure and role replacing the legal vocabulary of institution, group or organisation. Almond and his collaborators introduced new concepts of comparative politics. The concept of political system replaced the state and its legal apparatus. Structure replaced institution, role took the place of office and function substituted for power. Almond suggested that all political systems have four characteristics: All political systems have structures.

The same political functions are performed in all political systems.

All political structures are multifunctional.

All political systems are mixed in the cultural sense.

Almond then outlined his own functional categories classifying them Into inputs and outputs:

Input functions:

Political socialisation and recruitment

Interest articulation

Interest aggregation

Political communication Output Functions

Rule making

Rule application

Rule adjudication

The outputs are government functions and correspond to the traditional legislative, executive and judicial functions. They show a bias towards American and European conceptions of government showing traditional orientation of comparative politics. Almond, however, argued that input functions are crucial in characterising the political systems of developing countries. These input functions constitute the ingredients of the system: who recognises, deliberates and resolves problems and issues. Spiro called this a process of “policy flow” and Easton interpreted it as consisting of demands and supports for action. Almond says that political socialisation takes place through the family, school, church, trade union, party and even government agencies. It also involves recruitment of people from different social groups into political parties, civil service etc. Interest articulation is the expression of political interests and demands for action. Interest aggregation is the combining of those interests and demands which are articulated by interest groups and political parties. Political communication helps all these political functions. Political socialisation, recruitment, articulation and aggregation occur through communication. Gabriel Almond says that political culture is dualistic, not monistic. Political systems may be represented as modern and traditional, developed and underdeveloped, industrial and agrarian. Political systems have evolved through stages of development. Structures become more differentiated as political systems reach higher stages of growth. Almond divided them into primitive, traditional, transitional and modern systems. Less developed systems display ‘traditional’ styles of diffuseness, particularism, and ascriptiveness. The more developed systems display ‘rational’ styles of specificity, universalism, achievement and affective neutrality. Yet this process of modernisation is never complete. Almond called his theory as “probabilistic” theory suggesting “that political systems may be compared in terms of the probabilities in performance of specified functions by the specified structures.” He argued that his conception of political system deals with interdependence which does not mean harmony. He claimed that his theory was dynamic as it conceived of “developmental patterns”. He connected his framework of system with his concept of political development. Almond incorporated force levels of functions in his model. One level consists of conversion functions: Interest articulation, interest aggregation, political communication, rule making, rule application and rule adjudication. These functions relate to input demands and supports and to output decisions and actions as internalised within the political system. Demands are formulated through interest articulation and are transformed into alternative courses of action through interest aggregation. Rules are drawn up through rule making. They are enforced through rule application and sometimes judged by rule adjudication. Communication serves all these functions. A second level consists of capability functions: regulation, extraction, distribution, and symbolic response. These activities relate to the environment. Almond said that in democratic systems, “outputs of regulation, extraction and distribution are more affected by inputs of demands from groups” and these systems therefore have “a higher responsive capability.” Totalitarian systems are less responsive to demands, regulate behaviour through coercion, and extract maximum resources from their people. Symbolic capability relates to the symbol flow from a particular system into the informational environment i.e. its image in the community of nations. A third level of functions is related to maintenance and adaptation of political system. They include political socialisation and recruitment. According to Almond, a theory of the political system can be based on understanding the relations among these three levels and the relations of the functions at each level. The influences that shaped Almond’s approach are similar to those which influenced Easton’s System analysis. His perspectives also emanated from the works of Radcliffe – Brown and Malinowski and the writings of Parsons and Easton. Because of Almond’s concern with the whole system, it can be called a pattern of macro-structural functionalism. Another influence on Almond’s thought relates to the traditions of pluralism and liberalism exemplified by the works of Arthur Bentley, David Truman and Robert Dahl. Because of its concern with a plurality of interests within the system, it may be called a pattern of micro-structural functionalism. Although Almond restated Parsonian concept of functionalism, two aspects of Parsons’ scheme have influenced Almond’s own formulation. Those are the theories of action and social system. Besides, like Parsons, Almond was also interested in the topics of personality and culture. Almond used the concept of “pattern variables” proposed by Parsons. These were:  (1) Affectivity vs. Affective Neutrality, (2) Self-orientation vs. collectivity orientation, (3) Universalism vs. Particularism, (4) Achievement vs. Ascription, (5) Specificity vs. Diffuseness. Almond used them to relate political culture to political system. The idea of interaction and equilibrium was inherent in the middle-range theory of Almond’s structural functionalism; the association of a pluralistic process and equilibrium was proposed early in Arthur Bentley’s Process of Government and restated in David Truman’s work in the Governmental Process. Almond assimilated pluralist theory into an explicitly functionalist framework. This reduced Almond’s approach to the status of partisan apologists, an ideological interpretation of Western liberal political system.

MAH

    MHI-03     :          Historiography

                   MHI-06     :          Evolution of Social Structures in India

                                      Through the Ages

                   MHI-08     :          History of Ecology and Environment: India

                   MPSE-003: Western Political Thought (From Plato to

                                       Marx)

                   MPSE-004: Social and Political Thought in Modern India

M.A. History – 2^nd Year

Assignments – July 2011 and January 2012 Sessions

Dear Student,

You have to do one assignment in each course of 8 and 4 credits.  The assignments are compulsory.  The assignment will cover the whole course.

It is important that you write the answers to all the assignment questions in your own words. Your answers should be within the approximate range of the word-limit set for a particular question.

The assignments should be submitted to the Coordinator of your Study Centre.  You must obtain a receipt from the Study Centre for the assignments submitted and retain it.  If possible, keep a photocopy of the submitted assignment with you.

The Study Centre will have to return the assignments to you after they are evaluated.  Please insist on this.  The Study Centre in turn will send the marks to the Student Evaluation Division at IGNOU, New Delhi.  These will be entered in your grade card.

Submission of Assignments

You should note that the submission of assignments is compulsory before taking up Term-end Examination.  It is therefore suggested that you do them within time.  In M.A. second year you will have to do a total of 5 assignments.  We have given you a lot of time to do the assignments but we advise you to do them one by one along with your study of the particular course and submit them so that you may get back the marks and comments of the Counsellor with evaluated assignment.  With a proper planning you will be able to do them within the stipulated period.  Please do not wait for the last date to submit all the assignments because it would be difficult to do all of them in one go.

Last Date of Submission of Assignment                    

July 2011 Session Students                                         31^st March, 2012

January 2012 Session Students                                             30^th September 2012

Where to submit the assignments                               The Coordinator of your Study

                                                                                    Centre

Before attempting the assignments please read the detailed instructions provided in the Programme Guide sent to you separately

Now read the following guidelines carefully before answering the questions:

GUIDELINES FOR ASSIGNMENTS

The assignments have two types of questions:

1)         Essay Type Questions which you have to answer in about 500 words each carry 20 marks each.

2)         Short notes which you have to answer in about 250 words each carry 10 marks each.

You will find it useful to keep the following points in mind:

a)         Planning: Read the assignments carefully. Go through the units on which they are based.  Make some points regarding each question and then re-arrange these in a logical order.

b)        Organisation: Be a little more selective and analytical before drawing up a rough outline of your answer.  In an essay-type question, give adequate attention to your introduction and conclusion.  The introduction must offer your brief interpretation of the question and how you propose to develop it.  The conclusion must summarize your response to the question.

            Make sure that your answer:

• is logical and coherent;
• has clear connections between sentences and paragraphs;
• is written correctly giving adequate consideration to your expression, style and presentation;
• does not exceed the number of words indicated in your question.

c)         Presentation:  Once you are satisfied with your answers, you can write down the final version for submission, writing each answer neatly and underlining the points you wish to emphasize.

d)        Interpretation: Interpretation is a constant process in history writing. It is already reflected in your planning and selection. Explanatory comments with phrases like may be, because, could be, etc., immediately introduce an element of interpretation in writing itself. Here you have to be careful that these comments can be supported by the material you have in the answer.

MHI-03    HISTORIOGRAPHY

Course Code: MHI-03

Assignment Code: MHI-03/AST/TMA/2011-12

Total Marks: 100

Note: Attempt any five questions.  The assignment is divided into two Sections ‘A’ and ‘B’. You have to attempt at least two questions form each section in about 500 words each. All questions carry equal marks.

Section-A

1. Give an analytical account of the various traditions of historiography which constitute the Positivist tradition.                                                                                                          20

2. Discuss the important features of Indo-Persian tradition of history-writing during the Sultanate period.                                                                                                                     20

3. Discuss the distinctive features of traditional Chinese historiography.                                20

4. Who are considered to be the founders of the Annales School of historiography?     Discuss their works.                                                                                                       20

5. Write a note on the historiographical traditions in early India.                                            20

Section-B

6. What do you understand by the term ‘subaltern’? Discuss the development of the      project of the Subaltern Studies in India.                                                                                20

7. What is colonial historiography? Discuss some of the important historians and their works associated with this trend.                                                                                                           20

8. Write a note on the conflicting views on Indian Renaissance.                                            20

9. What is history from below? Discuss it with reference to the history-writing in India.                                                                                                                                                     20

10. Write short notes in about 250 words each on any two of the following:                                                                                                                                                                 10+10

a) Main concepts of postmodernism

b) D.D. Kosambi and the paradigm shift in Indian history-writing

c) Nationalist historiography

d) Race as political and social construct.

MHI-06: EVOLUTION OF SOCIAL STRUCTURES

IN INDIA THROUGH THE AGES

Course Code: MHI-06

Assignment Code: MHI-06/AST/TMA/2011-12

Total Marks: 100

Note: Attempt any five questions.  The assignment is divided into two Sections ‘A’ and ‘B’. You have to attempt at least two questions form each section in about 500 words each. All questions carry equal marks.

SECTION A

1. Comment on the nature of interpretation in history writing. Should historical problems be discussed with an open mind?                                                                                                                   20

2.         Discuss the archaeological evidence for early food producing villages and Camp sites. What light does this throw on the nature of this society?                                                     20

3. Elaborate on the structure and function of guilds between 6^th century B.C. and 4^th century A.D.                                                                                                                   20

4. Comment on the problematic of the concept of ‘tribe’ in the context of chaityas and viharas.                                                                                                                                   20
5. Discuss the debates on the term ‘early medieval’                                                         20

SECTION B

6. Discuss B.D. Chattopadhya’s arguments on the early Rajputs.                                   20
7. Comment on the ideological roots of the nationalists’ perceptions of the Indian society.                                                                                                                         20
8. Discuss the non-Brahman movement in the 19^th century in the context of an emerging modernity.                                                                                                                    20
9. Comment on the rise of the Indian middle classes during the colonial period.

                                                                                                                                            20

10. How did the various Criminal Tribes Acts affect the wandering and the nomadic groups?                                                                                                                         20

MHI-08 HISTORY OF ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT: INDIA

ASSIGNMENT: 2011-2012

Course Code: MHI-08

                                                                                                          Assignment Code: MHI-08/AST/TMA/2011-12

                                                                                                                        Total Marks: 100

Note: Attempt any five questions.  The assignment is divided into two Sections ‘A’ and ‘B’. You have to attempt at least two questions form each section in about 500 words each. All questions carry equal marks.

SECTION A

1.      Write an essay on the nature of writings pertaining to the environmental conditions

             prevailing during the colonial period in India.                                                           20

2. The beginning of agriculture changed the relationship between human societies and the nature in a significant manner – Do you agree with this view? Give reasons in support.                                                                                                                        20

3. What are the nature of evidence and the geographical spread of Hunting-Gathering Communities?  Discuss.                                                                                              20

4. Discuss the main features of resource use practices in early India.                            20

5. Write Short Notes on any two of the following in about 200 words each:          10+10

1. The Indian Platea
2. Agro-Pastoralism in Chalcolithic Cultures
3. Principles Defining the Water Rights
4. Historical Evolution of Metals

                                                SECTION B

6. Describe the historical pattern of the use of water in India.                                        20

7. Describe the main features of the Indian view of Nature Conservation.                     20

8. Explain the reasons and the form of Chipko Movement.                                            20

9. Give the main features of the Convention of Biodiversity.                                         20

10. Write Short Notes on any twoof the following in about 200 words each:           10+10
1. Inter-State Water Disputes
2. Environmental Discourse of Industrialism
3. Gandhian Alternative to Development
4. Deep Ecology

   MPSE-003 WESTERN POLITICAL THOUGHT (From Plato to Marx)

TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT (TMA)

 (MPSE-003)

Course Code: MPSE-003

Assignment Code: ASST/TMA/2011-12

Marks: 100

Note:Answer any five questions in about 500 words each. Attempt at least two questions from each section. Each question carries 20 marks.

SECTION – I

1.                  Discuss Aristotle’s theory of revolution.

2.                  Write an essay on Machiavelli’s ‘The Prince’.

3.                  Examine Edmund Burke’s critique of natural rights and social contract.

4.                  Describe the salient features of Bentham’s political philosophy.

5.                  Discuss J.S Mill’s views on equal rights for women.

SECTION -II

Write a short note on the following in about 250 words each:

6.         a)   Hegel’s dialectical method

b)      Hegel’s theory of freedom of the individual

7.         a)   Marx’s theory of alienation

b)      Dictatorship of the Proletariat

8.         a)   Relevance of Western Political Thought

            b)   Plato’s scheme of education

9.         a)   St. Thomas Aquinas’s views on the law and the state

            b)   Thomas Hobbes on right and duties of the Sovereign

10.       a)   Rousseau’s critique of civil society

            b)   Kant’s concept of perpetual peace

      MPSE-004  SOCIAL AND  POLITICAL THOUGHT IN MODERN INDIA (MPSE-004)

TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT (TMA)

Course Code: MPSE-004

Assignment Code: Asst /TMA/2011-12

Marks: 100

Note: Answer five questions in all, selecting at least two questions from each section. Each question is to be answered in about 500 words. Each question carries 20 marks.

SECTION – I

1.                  Write an essay on modes of reformist thought in British colonial India.

2.                  Examine Jyotiba Phule’s role as a social revolutionary.

3.                  Describe the Hindu Nationalism of V.D. Savarkar.

4.                  Comment on Sir Syed Ahmed Khan’s views on Hindu-Muslim Unity.

5.                  Discuss E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker as a social reformer.

SECTION -II

Write short notes on the following in about 250 words each:

6.         a)   Philosophical foundations of M. K. Gandhi’s political perspective

            b)   Gandhi’s views on the relationship between religion and politics

7.         a)   Nehru’s scientific temper

            b)   Nehru’s theory of culture

8.         a)   B.R. Ambedkar’s ideological orientation

            b)   Ambedkar’s views on social justice and supportive polity

 9.         a)  Rabindranath Tagore’s critique of nationalism

             b)  Tagore’s differences with Gandhi

10.        a)  Communist Party of India before independence

             b)  M.N. Roy and Radical Humanism

M.A. History – 1^st Year

Assignments – July 2011 and January 2012 Sessions

Dear Student,
As explained in the Programme Guide for M.A. in History you will have to do one assignment in each course.  The assignments are compulsory.  Each assignment covers the whole course.

It is important that you write the answers to all the assignment questions in your own words. Your answers should be within the approximate range of the word-limit set for a particular question.

The assignment should be submitted to the Coordinator of your Study Centre.  You must obtain a receipt from the Study Centre for the assignments submitted and retain it.  If possible, keep a photocopy of the submitted assignments with you.

The Study Centre will have to return the assignments to you after they are evaluated.  Please insist on this.  The Study Centre in turn will send the marks to the Student Evaluation Division at IGNOU, New Delhi.  These will be entered in your grade card.
Submission of Assignments

You should note that the submission of assignments is compulsory before taking up Term-end Examination.  It is therefore suggested that you do them within time.  In M.A. first year you will have to do a total of 4 assignments.  We have given you a lot of time to do the assignments but we advise you to do them one by one along with your study of the particular course and submit them so that you may get back the marks and comments of the Counsellor with evaluated assignment.  With a proper planning you will be able to do them within the stipulated period.  Please do not wait for the last date to submit all the assignments because it would be difficult to do all of them in one go.  Specific dates for the submission are given below.

Last Date of Submission of Assignment  

July 2011 Session Students    31^st March 2012

January 2012 Session Students   30^th September 2012

Where to submit the assignments the Coordinator of your Study Centre

Before attempting the assignments please read the detailed instructions provided in the Programme Guide sent to you separately

Now read the guidelines carefully before answering the questions:

GUIDELINES FOR ASSIGNMENTS

The assignments have two types of questions:

1) Essay Type Questions which you have to answer in about 500 words each and they carry 20 marks each.

2) Short notes to be answered in about 250 words each and they carry 10 marks each.

You will find it useful to keep the following points in mind:

a) Planning: Read the assignments carefully. Go through the units on which they are based.  Make some points regarding each question and then re-arrange these in a logical order.

b) Organisation:  Be a little more selective and analytical before drawing up a rough outline of your answer.  In an essay-type question, give adequate attention to your introduction and conclusion.  The introduction must offer your brief interpretation of the question and how you propose to develop it.  The conclusion must summarise your response to the question.
Make sure that your answer:

ois logical and coherent;

ohas clear connections between sentences and paragraphs;

ois written correctly giving adequate consideration to your expression, style and presentation;

odoes not exceed the number of words indicated in your question.

c)  Presentation: Once you are satisfied with your answers, you can write down the final version for submission, writing each answer neatly and underlining the points you wish to emphasis.

d)   Interpretation: Interpretation is a constant process in history writing. It is already reflected in your planning and selection. Explanatory comments with phrases like may be, because, could be, etc., immediately introduce an element of interpretation in writing itself. Here you have to be careful that these comments can be supported by the material you have in the answer.

MHI-01: ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL SOCITIES

             Course Code:  MHI-01

      Assignment Code:  MHI-01/AST/TMA/2011-12

      Total Marks:   100

Note:  Attempt any five questions. The assignment is divided into two Sections ‘A’ and ‘B’.  You have to attempt at least two questions from each section in about 500 words each.  All questions carry equal marks.

SECTION A

       1. Discuss the various theoretical approaches for understanding transitions to agriculture.                                                                                                          20

2. Write a note on the social structure that prevailed in the Bronze Age.               20

3. Analyse  the process of the consolidation of the Persian empire during the rule of Cyrus and Darius.                                                                                                20

4. Discuss in brief the organization of government and economy of South Africa.

20

5. Write Short notes on any two of the following in 250 words each.              10+10

i.    Neolithic Revolution

ii.    Pastoral Nomadism

iii.    Comitia Curiata

iv.    Religion of the Inkas.

 SECTION B

        6. Briefly discuss the rule of the Umayyad and the reasons for decline of their rule

20

7. Analyses the relationship of Lords, Vassals and Peasants in the feudal system.

20

8. Write a note on the role of the Baniyas in conducting trade in India.                20

9. Briefly discuss the nature of administration, economy and society of medieval town.                                                                                                                   20

10.Write short Notes on any two of the following in around 250 words each.                                                                                                         10+10

(i)                 Confucianism

(ii)               Fairs

(iii)             Anabaptists

(iv)             Gunpowder Revolution.

MHI-02 Modern World

Course Code: MHI-02

Assignment Code: MHI-02/AST/TMA/2011-12

Total Marks: 100

Note: The assignment is divided into sections A and B. You have to attempt at least two questions from each section in 500 words each. In all you have to attempt five questions. All questions carry equal marks.

Section A

1. Write a comparative essay on the capitalist and the socialist patterns of industrialization.                                                                                                         20

2.  In What ways did the Renaissance and the Enlightenment contribute to the making of modern world?                                                                                                       20

3.  What is welfare state? Make a comparison between the English and the Japanese      welfare states.                                                                                                            20

4.  What are the ways in which Imperialism has been understood and explained?       20

5.   Write short notes on any two of the following in about 250 words each.

10+10

(i)                 Liberal view of the state

(ii)               Transition from Feudalism to Capitalism

(iii)             Theories of Nationalism

(iv)             Nature of Industrial Society.

Section B

6. What is the legacy of the French Revolution for polity in the modern world?          20

7. Write a note on the international rivalries among the major superpowers of   the world in the first half of the 29^th century.                                                                 20

8. What are the ways in which the revolutions in the realm of knowledge influence the modern world?                                                                                                           20

9. Why did the first socialist revolution occur in Russia?                                              20

10. Do you agree with the view that the modern industrial development has come at a cost for the entire humankind? Mention some of them.                                            20

MHI-04: POLITICAL STRUCTURES IN INDIA

                       Course Code: MHI-04

Assignment Code: MHI-04/AST/TMA/2011-12

Total Marks: 100 

Note: Attempt any five questions.  The assignment is divided into two Sections ‘A’ and ‘B’. You have to attempt at least two questions form each section in about 500 words each. All questions carry equal marks.

SECTION A

1. Discuss the transition form pre-state in early North India.                                20
2. Analyse the nature of state formation under the Rajputs in the early medieval period.                                                                                                                20
3. Explain the nature of early medieval polities in peninsular India between 8^th-

12^th centuries A.D.                                                                                             20

4. Critically examine the various interpretations regarding the nature of  Mughal state.                                                                                                                   20
5. Give a brief account of the process which led to the emergence and consolidation of 18^th century polities.                                                               20

SECTION B

6.  Critically examine the 18^th century debate.                                                        20

7.  Discuss the working of the Mansab and Jagir system under the Mughals.                                                                                                                                       20

8.    Describe the central, provincial and local administration under the Delhi             Sultanate.                                                                                                             20

9. Write a note on the administration system of the Cholas.                                  20

10. Write short-notes in about-250 words each                                                 10+10

i) Colonial forest policy

ii) Orientalists.

MHI-05: HISTORY OF INDIAN ECONOMY

Course Code: MHI-05

Assignment Code: MHI-05/AST/ TMA/2011-12

Total Marks: 100

 Note: Attempt any five questions. The assignment is divided into two Sections ‘A’ and ‘B’.  You have to attempt at least two questions from each section in about 500 words each.  All questions carry equal marks.

SECTION A

1.        Analyse the prevailing ideas on economic history of the ancient period. Discuss new emerging trends in the historiography of ancient India during the early 1960s.                                                                                                                  20

2.   Write a brief note on the culture contemporary with the Harappan Civilization.

20

3.   Was there feudalism in Indian history? Comment.                                              20

4.   Analze the role of nadu, nagaram and nakharas in the growth of urbanization in South India.                                                                                                         20

5. Critically analyze the presence of different categories of cultivators in the medieval period.                                                                                                    20

SECTION B

6.  Critically analyze the growth of coinage during the medieval period.                 20

7.  Write a note on the Indian merchant communities during the 19^th century.         20

8. Early Colonial Forest Policy was governed by commercial rather than conservation needs, Comment.                                                                              20

9.    Discuss the changes in the textiles and leather industries in India during the first half of the 20^th Century.                                                                                        20

10.     Write Short notes on any two of the following, Answer in about 250 words each.                                                                                                                10+10

1.                                 Fluvial routes

2.                                 Damoder Copper Plate inscription

3.                                 Historiography of Asian trade

4.                                 Early census of colonial India.

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